1. 2001. Common insects and diseases of interior Douglas-fir. British Columbia Ministry of Forests SIL471. 8 p.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: This field guide provides information on the different pests and diseases of the interior Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in British Columbia which include: defoliating insects (Douglas fir tussock moth, spruce budworm and rusty tussock moth); dwarf mistletoe; foliar diseases (e.g., caused by the Cooley spruce adelgid); bark beetles; root diseases (Armillaria root disease, blackstain root disease, laminated root rot and blackstain root disease); wood decay (caused by bracket or conk fungi); and various abiotic problems (sunscald, drought or frost). A guideline to control infestations of these given pests is also included.

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2. Adams, T., T. Anekonda and C. Lomas. 1999. Annual Report 1998-99, Pacific Northwest Tree Improvement Research Cooperative. 33 p.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Summaries are given of research projects on improvement of Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] in the Pacific Northwest: seedling drought physiology; genetics of dark respiration and its relationship with drought hardiness; response of saplings to drought, as measured by growth ring variables; use of microsatellite marker loci to identify pollen contamination in seed orchards; and evaluation of miniaturized seed orchard designs.

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3. Aitken, S.N. and W.T. Adams. 1996. Genetics of fall and winter cold hardiness of coastal Douglas-fir in Oregon. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 26(10): 1828-1837.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

                        genetic relationships

Abstract: Genetic variation in autumn cold hardiness was studied in two western Oregon breeding populations of coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), one on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains and the other in the Coastal Range. On six sampling dates (September, October and November 1992 and January, September and October 1993), shoot cuttings from 40 open-pollinated families in each of two progeny test sites for each breeding zone were subject to artificial freezing at two test temperatures. Damage in each shoot was recorded as visible injury to needle, stem and bud tissue separately. Considerable family variation was found for cold injury scores in all tissues in early to mid autumn, but differences were often smaller or nonsignificant in late autumn and midwinter. Individual heritability estimates for needle cold injury were low (<0.40) and generally decreased in late autumn and midwinter. Family rankings for autumn cold hardiness, however, are expected to be relatively consistent over sites and years, although needles appear to display more family-by-site interaction than stems or buds. Genetic correlations between tissues in cold injury varied considerably and were sometimes weak, indicating that the evaluation of a single tissue is probably not adequate for assessing overall cold hardiness of genotypes. Autumn and winter cold hardiness seem to be largely under separate genetic control since genetic correlations between hardiness at these two stages were weak. This study confirms earlier results in Washington breeding populations and shows that coastal Douglas fir families can be effectively ranked for autumn cold hardiness by conducting artificial freeze tests on cut shoots in mid-autumn (October) and scoring damage to stems and at least one other tissue.

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4. Aitken, S.N. and W.T. Adams. 1997. Spring cold hardiness under strong genetic control in Oregon populations of Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 27(11): 1773-1780.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        tree phenology

                        tree physiology

                        genetic relationships

Abstract: Genetic variation in spring cold hardiness of shoots prior to bud break was studied in two Oregon breeding populations of Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii, one on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains and the other in the Coast Range. In March and April 1993, and April 1994, shoot cuttings from 40 open-pollinated families in each of two progeny test sites in each breeding zone were subjected to artificial freezing. Visible cold damage to needle, stem, and bud tissues was recorded. Date of bud burst (all sites), and injury resulting from a 1992 natural frost event (one site), were also recorded. Spring cold injury varied widely among families. Individual heritabilities for spring cold injury scores averaged 0.76 in the Coastal zone and 0.42 in the Cascade zone. Genetic correlations among tissues, sites, sampling dates, and years, and between April cold injury and date of bud burst were high, in most cases over 0.80. Correlations were also strong between natural frost damage in 1992 and artificial cold injury scores in 1993. Artificial freeze testing stem tissues of cut shoots sampled in April from a single test site should effectively rank families in this region for spring cold hardiness.

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5. Aitken, S.N., W.T. Adams, N. Schermann and L.H. Fuchigami. 1996. Family variation for fall cold hardiness in two Washington populations of coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii (Mirb.) Franco). Forest-Ecology-and-Management 80(1/3): 187-195.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

                        tree phenology

                        genetic relationships

Abstract: In order to assess the genetics of autumn (fall) cold hardiness in coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), shoot cuttings were collected in October from saplings (9-year-old trees) of open-pollinated families in two progeny tests in each of two breeding zones in Washington, one in the Coast range (80 families) and one on the west slope of the Cascade Mountains (89 families). Samples from over 5500 trees were subjected to artificial freezing and visually evaluated for needle, stem and bud tissue injury. The extent to which cold injury is genetically related to tree height and shoot phenology (timing of bud burst and bud set) was also evaluated. Significant family variation was found for all cold hardiness traits; however, individual heritability estimates were relatively low (ranging from 0.09 to 0.22). Significant family-by-test site interaction was detected for needle injury in the Cascade breeding zone, but not in the coastal zone. Genetic correlations (rA) among needle, stem and bud tissues for cold damage were weak (0.16<less or =>rA<less or =>0.58) indicating that genes controlling autumn cold hardening are somewhat different for different tissues. Timing of bud burst and bud set were only weakly correlated with cold injury (rA<less or =>0.49). Thus, bud phenology is a poor predictor of autumn cold hardiness in this species. There was no consistent relationship between tree height and cold injury in the coastal zone. In the Cascade zone, taller trees appeared to be more susceptible to cold injury, but the association was weak (mean rA=0.38, range 0.20-0.72).

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6. Alvarez, I.F. and R.G. Linderman. 1983. Effects of ethylene and fungicide dips during cold storage on root regeneration and survival of western conifers and their mycorrhizal fungi. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 13(5): 962-971.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand health           

                        mycorrhizal response

Abstract: Survival and growth of Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus ponderosa and Abies concolor seedlings, and survival of mycorrhizal fungi on their roots were assessed after cold storage with or without 5 p.p.m. ethylene in combination with 4 root treatments: washed, dipped in Truban [etridiazole] or Benlate sol. or not treated. Ethylene treatment resulted in increased survival, apical bud burst, and new root formation in the greenhouse if roots had not been washed or dipped in fungicide. None of the gas storage or root treatments greatly affected seedling survival in the field. Root washing decreased seedling vigour, especially in fir. None of the root treatments or gas storage conditions affected root fungal populations; bacterial and actinomycete populations appeared to be affected and the response varied according to host species. Pisolithus tinctorius, which formed mycorrhizae with 10-20% of the short roots of the seedlings, did not survive cold storage. Thelephora spp. and an ectendomycorrhizal fungus both survived cold storage and rapidly colonized roots newly formed on seedlings planted after cold storage.

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7. Alvarez, I.F. and J.M. Trappe. 1983a. Dusting roots of Abies concolor and other conifers with Pisolithus tinctorius spores at outplanting time proves ineffective. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 13(5): 1021-1023.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        site preparation

                        mechanical preparation

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        mycorrhizal response

Abstract: Dusting roots of Abies concolor, Abies magnifica var. shastensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Pinus ponderosa with Pisolithus tinctorius (Pt) spores when planted out produced no Pt mycorrhizae at the end of the first growing season. In the 3rd yr occasional Pt mycorrhizae had formed on A. concolor. Inoculations reduced seedling survival in some cases. High rates of spore application may have desiccated roots of the true firs and spore amounts applied need careful attention. Soil scarification and ripping significantly promoted growth of A. concolor seedlings compared with scarification alone.

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8. Amaranthus, M.P. and D.A. Perry. 1987. Effect of soil transfer on ectomycorrhiza formation and the survival and growth of conifer seedlings on old, nonreforested clear-cuts. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 17(8): 944-950.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

                        mycorrhizal response

Abstract: Small amounts (150 ml) of soil from established conifer plantations and mature forest were transferred to planting holes on 3 sites in the Klamath Mts., S. Oregon and N. California. The sites had been clear felled and burned 8-27 yr earlier and unsuccessfully reforested. At Cedar Camp, a high alt. (1720 m) southerly slope with sandy soil, transfer of soil from a Douglas fir plantation increased first-yr survival of Douglas fir seedlings by 50%, mycorrhizal formation and b.a. growth. Soil from mature forest did not enhance survival and growth. Soil transfer was less effective on 2 sites at lower alt. with clayey soils. Douglas fir seedlings at Crazy Peak showed similar, but less well defined, patterns to those at Cedar Camp. All Pinus lambertiana seedlings at Wood Creek survived well and were generally unaffected by soil transfer. Results suggest that adequate mycorrhizal formation is critical to seedling growth and survival on cold, droughty sites. Transfer of soil from a suitable source may offset the decline in native mycorrhizal fungi if reforestation is delayed.

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9. Amaranthus, M.P. and D.A. Perry. 1989a. Interaction effects of vegetation type and Pacific madrone soil inocula on survival, growth and mycorrhiza formation of Douglas-fir. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 19(5): 550-556.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        mycorrhizal response

Abstract: One-yr-old non-mycorrhizal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings were planted in 1985 in cleared blocks within 3 adjacent vegetation types in SW Oregon, viz., whiteleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida), annual grass meadow, and an open stand of Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana). Within subplots in each block, either pasteurized or unpasteurized soil from a nearby Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii) stand was transferred to the planting holes of the seedlings; control seedlings received no madrone soil. Second-year survival averaged 92, 43 and 12% for seedlings planted on the manzanita, meadow and oak sites, respectively. Growth differences generally paralleled survival differences. Added madrone soil, whether pasteurized or unpasteurized, did not influence survival. Unpasteurized madrone soil substantially increased the growth of seedlings on the manzanita site, but not in the meadow or oak stand. Pasteurized madrone soil did not affect growth in any of the vegetation types. Unpasteurized madrone soil nearly tripled the number of mycorrhizal root tips forming on seedlings and resulted in formation of a new mycorrhiza type on the manzanita site, although it had little or no effect on the meadow or oak sites. These results suggest that manzanita and madrone impose a biological pattern on soils that stimulates Douglas fir growth and survival, and support results of other studies indicating that root symbionts and rhizosphere organisms mediate interactions among plant species.

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10. Amaranthus, M.P. and D.A. Perry. 1989b. Rapid root tip and mycorrhiza formation and increased survival of Douglas-fir seedlings after soil transfer. New-Forests 3(3): 259-264.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        mycorrhizal response

                        root development

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In order to re-inoculate soil with mycorrhizal fungi, small amounts (about 150 ml) of soil from an established Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantation were added to planting holes when Douglas fir seedlings were planted on an old, unrevegetated clearcut in the Klamath Mountains of Oregon. Seedlings were lifted throughout the growing season to determine the influence of soil transfer on the rate of root tip initiation and mycorrhiza formation. Six weeks after planting, seedlings receiving plantation soil had formed 62% more root tips than controls; however, no statistically significant differences were apparent 15 weeks after planting. By that time, a small percentage of root tips were visibly mycorrhizal; seedlings receiving transferred soil had the most colonization (13.6 vs. 3.5 per seedling, p <less or =>0.05). Of seedlings receiving transfer soil, 36.6% survived the first growing season, compared to 11.3% of control seedlings. At this high altitude, soils often remain frozen well into spring, leaving only a brief period between the time when soils become warm enough for root growth and the onset of summer drought. Under these conditions, the rapid root growth and mycorrhiza formation stimulated by plantation soil increases the ability of seedlings to survive the first growing season.

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11. Anekonda, T.S., M.C. Lomas, W.T. Adams, K.L. Kavanagh and S.N. Aitken. 2002. Genetic variation in drought hardiness of coastal Douglas-fir seedlings from British Columbia. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 32(10): 1701-1716.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        genetic relationships

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Genetic variation in drought hardiness traits and their genetic correlations with growth potential and recovery traits were investigated in 39 full-sib families of coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) from southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Seedlings of these families were grown in raised nursery beds and subjected to three moisture regimes each in the second (well-watered or control, mild, and moderate drought) and third (control, severe drought, and recovery from second-year moderate drought) seasons. Traits assessed included drought hardiness (foliage damage, cavitation of xylem tracheids, xylem hydraulic conductivity, and height and diameter growth increment) in the drought treatments, growth potential (total height and diameter) in the control treatment, and height and diameter growth increments in the recovery treatment. Xylem cavitation in the growth ring produced in a particular year was nearly three times greater under the moderate drought and four times greater under the severe drought than in the control treatment. Xylem hydraulic conductivity of seedlings in the severe drought treatment was 40% lower than conductivity of seedlings under the control treatment. Mean foliage damage in seedlings subjected to severe drought (third season) was much greater (33%) than in seedlings subjected to mild or moderate drought (second season). Families differed significantly in most drought hardiness traits, with individual tree heritabilities averaging 0.19. Thus, much potential exists for identifying drought-hardy families at the seedling stage and using this information for deployment or breeding purposes. In addition, most hardiness traits were strongly intercorrelated (genetic correlations often exceeded |0.80|) indicating that these traits are controlled largely by the same set of genes and that selection for hardiness based on one trait will increase hardiness as reflected in the other traits as well. Genetic correlations were only moderate (0.49) between hardiness traits measured in different years, perhaps due to the large difference in severity of the drought applied in the two seasons. Although injury to seedlings, as reflected in foliage damage and xylem cavitation, was relatively low under the moderate drought of the second season, it did result in reduced growth increment the following (recovery) year. Growth potential under favourable moisture regimes was nearly uncorrelated with drought hardiness, suggesting that drought hardiness could be improved in this southwestern British Columbia breeding population without negatively impacting growth potential in favourable moisture conditions.

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12. Antonelli, A.L. and R.L. Campbell. 1991. Cooley spruce gall aphid. College of Agriculture and Home Economics, Washington State University. Extension Bulletin EB0966: 2 p.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Notes are provided on the biology, injuriousness and chemical control (carbaryl and endosulfan are suggested) of Adelges cooleyi [Gilletteella cooleyi] on certain coniferous trees [including Picea sitchensis, P. engelmannii, P. pungens and Pseudotsuga menziesii] in Washington State.

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13. Arnott, J.T. and D. Beddows. 1982. Influence of Styroblock container size on field performance of Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and Sitka spruce. Tree Planters' Notes 33(3): 31-34.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Pseudotsuga menziesii, Tsuga heterophylla and Picea sitchensis seeds were sown in April 1971 in BC/CFS Styroblocks sizes 2 and 8 with volumes of 40 and 125 cmsuperscript 3 respectively. The seedlings in the larger containers were kept in a heated greenhouse for 2-3 months to stimulate growth to fill the containers, before joining those in the smaller containers in an outdoor shadehouse nursery. Seedlings were planted out in British Columbia in March 1972. A second trial was started in April 1972 and seedlings planted out in April 1973. Survival and ht. growth were recorded for 5 growing seasons. The larger containers produced larger seedlings at planting. There were n.s.d. in survival of seedlings grown in the different sized containers for all 3 species. The seedlings grown in the larger containers were significantly taller after the first growing season in the field, a difference which persisted for the 5 seasons. Growing seedlings in the larger containers was more expensive and the seedlings took longer to plant than those grown in the smaller containers.

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14. Arnott, J.T. and F.T. Pendl. 1994. Field performance of several tree species and stock types planted in montane forests of coastal British Columbia. Canadian-Forest-Service, Pacific and Yukon Region Information Report BC-X-347. viii + 45 p.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        planting operations

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        wood quality

Abstract: Planting trials were established at sites within the Mountain Hemlock and montane Coastal Western Hemlock biogeoclimatic zones. Six test areas were chosen within each zone. Amabilis fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (A. procera), yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) were the species selected for planting in the Mountain Hemlock zone. In addition to Abies amabilis and A. procera, western white pine (Pinus monticola), western redcedar (Thuja plicata), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) were planted in the Coastal Western Hemlock zone. Plug (PSB 211), plug transplant and bareroot stock types were used for the eight species across both zones. Seedlings were planted during the autumn (September/October) and spring (May) in each of two successive years: 1978-79 and 1979-80. Survival, growth and tree form 13 years after planting were used as indicators of the reliability (a combination of tree survival and form) and productivity of the planting treatment combinations. Noble fir and amabilis fir were the most reliable species in the Mountain Hemlock zone; i.e. these species have average survival rates higher than 80% and few form defects. Yellow cedar crowns were badly broken by snow, which reduced the reliability of this species in the early years of plantation establishment. The growth, survival and form of mountain hemlock ranked between that of the true firs and yellow cedar. Noble fir was by far the most productive species in the Mountain Hemlock zone. Within the Coastal Western Hemlock zone no single species demonstrated a superior combination of productivity or reliability. Douglas fir, western hemlock and western redcedar were good species in the lower elevations of the zone, whereas noble fir and amabilis fir were better species at the upper elevational limits of the zone. Western white pines should be avoided until rust-resistant seed sources are available. Little variation was found among the three planting stock options and even less between the two planting seasons. Plug transplant stock was more reliable than bareroot or plug stock; productivity ranked from greatest to least in the following order within both zones: plug transplant, bareroot and plug stock. This ranking among stock types may well change as different stock types are developed. However, the relative size and design differences among stock types, no matter when they become available, will always have an effect on the ultimate reliability and productivity of planted trees. Autumn planting gave significantly lower survival in the Coastal Western Hemlock zone only.

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15. Axelrood, P.E., W.K. Chapman, K.A. Seifert, D.B. Trotter and G. Shrimpton. 1998. Cylindrocarpon and Fusarium root colonization of Douglas-fir seedlings from British Columbia reforestation sites. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28:1198-1206.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Poor performance of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations established in 1987 has occurred in southwestern British Columbia. Affected sites were planted with 1-yr-old container stock that exhibited some root dieback in the nursery. A study was initiated in 1991 to assess Cylindrocarpon and Fusarium root infection in planted and naturally regenerating (natural) Douglas fir seedlings from 7 affected plantations. Percentages of seedlings harbouring Cylindrocarpon spp. and percentage root colonization were significantly greater for planted seedlings than natural seedlings. A significant linear trend in Cylindrocarpon root colonization was observed for planted seedlings with colonization levels being highest for roots closest to the remnants of the root plug and decreasing at distances greater than 10 cm from that region. This trend in Cylindrocarpon colonization was not observed for natural seedlings. Cylindrocarpon destructans var. destructans [Nectria radicola var., radicola] and C. cylindroides var. cylindroides were the only species isolated from planted and natural conifer seedlings. For most sites, percentage of seedlings harbouring Fusarium spp. and percentage Fusarium root colonization were less than for Cylindrocarpon. Recovery of Fusarium spp. from seedlings and root colonization levels were not significantly different for planted and natural seedlings from all sites.

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16. Axelrood, P.E., M. Neumann, D. Trotter, R. Radley, G. Shrimpton and J. Dennis. 1995. Seedborne Fusarium on Douglas-fir: pathogenicity and seed stratification method to decrease Fusarium contamination. New-Forests 9(1): 35-51.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Twelve Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlots from coastal British Columbia were assayed for seedborne Fusarium; all of the seedlots were contaminated. The percentage of non-stratified seeds from individual seedlots harbouring Fusarium ranged from 0.3 to 95.4. Sixty-seven percent of the seedlots had Fusarium on less than 2% of the seeds. Post-stratification seedborne Fusarium levels were significantly less for running water imbibition compared with standing water imbibition. However, seedling growth at a container nursery was not consistently different for stratified seed imbibed initially in standing or running water. Fusarium disease symptoms were not observed in the nursery environment. The species of Fusarium isolated from seed were F. acuminatum [Gibberella acuminata], F. avenaceum [G. avenacea], F. lateritium [G. baccata], F. moniliforme [G. fujikuroi], F. oxysporum, F. poae and F. sambucinum [G. pulicaris]. Twelve Fusarium isolates, comprising 6 species, were assessed for pathogenicity. Disease symptoms were observed after 4 weeks incubation and Fusarium isolates ranged in virulence from low to high. Fusarium oxysporum isolates were the most pathogenic.

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17. Axelrood, P.E. and R. Radley. 1991. Biological control of Fusarium on Douglas-fir seedlings. Bulletin-SROP 14(8): 85-87.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: A bacterial culture collection was established from the rhizosphere and rhizoplane of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings collected from nursery and forest locations in British Columbia, Canada. Of the 2000 strains screened, 350 inhibited growth of at least 1 conifer seedling root pathogen (Fusarium, Cylindrocarpon or Pythium) in in vitro antibiosis assays. A total of 96 strains were screened for Fusarium disease control in biological control assays. One strain that inhibited all 3 pathogens in vitro was able to significantly reduce the incidence of disease caused by Fusarium on P. menziesii seedlings. Another strain that tested negative in in vitro antibiosis assays also reduced the disease incidence by a similar amount. This paper was presented at the Second international workshop on plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria - progress and prospects, held in Interlaken, Switzerland, Oct. 14-19, 1990.


18. Barclay, H.J. and H. Brix. 1984. Effects of urea and ammonium nitrate fertilizer on growth of a young thinned and unthinned Douglas-fir stand. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 14(6): 952-955.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        thinning

                        growth

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The effects were studied of 2 sources of nitrogen fertilizer applied at rates of 224 and 448 kg/ha N on growth of thinned and unthinned plots established in 1970 in a 24-yr-old stand on southern Vancouver Is., British Columbia. Ammonium nitrate yielded higher growth of diam. and vol. than urea over a 9-yr period, particularly with thinning. Ht. growth was not affected by nitrogen source. The efficiency of nitrogen fertilizing in terms of stem vol. response per kilogram of nitrogen applied was greatest with ammonium nitrate in thinned plots. Tree mortality increased substantially with fertilizing for both sources, and decreased markedly with thinning.

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19. Barclay, H.J. and H. Brix. 1985a. Effects of high levels of fertilization with urea on growth of thinned and unthinned Douglas-fir stands. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 15(4): 730-733.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        thinning

                        growth

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Diameter height and volume growth were documented for 9 yr after thinning and fertilizing in a 24-yr-old stand on a poor site on southern Vancouver Is. The treatments involved 3 thinning treatments (0, 1/3, and 2/3 b.a. removed) and 6 fertilizer treatments (0-1344 kg/ha N) with urea. Increments for both diameter and gross volume increased with the rate of fertilizer application and responses were still apparent 9 yr after treatment. For unthinned plots, the 9-yr volume growth responses were 30, 50, and 80% with fertilizer rates of 224, 448, and 896 kg/ha N, respectively. The efficiency of fertilizer use, measured as stem volume response per unit of nitrogen applied, decreased with rate of fertilizer application, but this result may change over a longer response period. There was a positive interaction between fertilizing and thinning such that high amounts of both mutually enhanced growth. Mortality increased with fertilizing, but only noticeably in unthinned plots.

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20. Barclay, H.J. and C.R. Layton. 1990. Growth and mortality in managed Douglas fir: relation to a competition index. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 36(2-4): 187-204.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        thinning

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Twelve-year increments of diameter at breast height (DBH), height, and volume in thinned and fertilized 45-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands on Vancouver Island, Canada, were related (by regression) to degree of thinning, amount of fertilizer (3x3 factorial), initial DBH, and a competitive stress index (CSI). The ability of the CSI to predict growth after treatment was examined. Causes of tree death, and CSI data, are presented, and the relationship between them discussed. The CSI was found to be only moderately good at predicting Douglas fir growth and mortality: initial DBH provided a better predictor. Most mortality in unthinned plots resulted from suppression, and correlated reasonably well with CSI; mortality in thinned plots was not correlated with CSI, and resulted principally from snow damage. Tree height variability generally became less over the 12 years following treatment, which is more consistent with two-sided than one-sided competition predictions, a result which is contrasted to that of many other species.

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21. Belz, D. and T.E. Nishimura. 1989. Effects of imazapyr, 2,4-D and metsulfuron methyl on conifer tolerance. Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science (Vol. 42): 98-104.

Keywords:      site preparation

                        chemical preparation

                        release treatments

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Imazapyr at 0.25-1.0 lb/acre alone or 0.5 lb/acre in combination with 2,4-D 2 lb/acre or metsulfuron 0.3 lb/acre was evaluated for effect on growth and injury to Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus ponderosa, Tsuga heterophylla and Abies amabilis seedlings in the Pacific Northwest region. Applications were made at 4 times: 3 month pre-planting in Dec., as buds began to swell in Mar., during the spring flush of growth in May, and after bud set in Aug. The effect of different application rates was of less significance than their timings. Application during active growth gave unacceptable injury levels; pre-planting caused least injury, but autumn treatment was acceptable for tolerant species. Species tolerance was in the order Pinus ponderosa > Pseudotsuga menziesii > T. heterophylla > A. amabilis.

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22. Bettinger, P., K.A. Bettinger and K. Boston. 1998. Correlation among spatial and non-spatial variables describing a cut-to-length thinning site in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 104(1/3): 139-149.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Variables describing the pre- and post-logging conditions of a thinning site in 47-yr-old naturally regenerated stand of second-growth Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) in western Oregon, were examined for correlation, and subsequently used to develop models to estimate residual stand damage levels. A cut-to-length harvesting system was utilized to perform the thinning operation, which used a single-grip harvester and a forwarder, and marked logging trails. Several of the variables were measured in an intensive field survey; other variables were developed using geographic information system (GIS) processes. An analysis of correlations among the site variables showed several obvious, and a few interesting, results that describe the operation. Most of the variables provided negative, or inconclusive, assistance in describing the variation in stand damage levels. Only one variable, the number of original trees/hectare, was significantly correlated with residual stand damage levels, and was represented in the models that were developed to estimate residual stand damage levels. The resulting models are of limited practical value, however, since they explain little of the variability in damage levels. Most of the variation in residual stand damage levels may well be explained by random chance, operator error, other unmeasured operational variables associated with this harvesting system, or interactions among variables. The main conclusion from the study is that although both spatial and non-spatial data were utilized in describing the logging operation and in developing models to estimate stand damage levels, the importance of using spatial data was inconclusive.

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23. Bettinger, P. and L.D. Kellogg. 1993. Residual stand damage from cut-to-length thinning of second-growth timber in the Cascade Range of western Oregon. Forest-Products-Journal 43(11/12): 59-64.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Residual stand damage was measured on 25% of an area that had been thinned with a cut-to-length logging system. Total damage (scar area) per acre was less than in any similar study in the Pacific Northwest, although 39.8% of the residual trees sustained some damage. Only 0.8% of the trees, however, sustained significant damage. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) was more susceptible to damage than Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Most of the damage occurred within 15 feet of a trail centreline and originated within 3 feet of the groundline. Early summer logging may have resulted in more damaged trees than might occur during other seasons. Future volume loss due to decay is likely to be minimal because a low percentage of scars were considered vulnerable to wood-decaying fungi.

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24. Binkley, D. 1984. Importance of size-density relationships in mixed stands of Douglas-fir and red alder. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 9(2): 81-85.

Keywords:      thinning

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Pairs of Douglas-fir, and Douglas-fir and red alder (Alnus rubra) stands were examined at four locations (in Oregon, Washington and British Columbia) for patterns in average tree size as a function of stand density. On fertile sites, the mixed stands experienced higher mortality than the pure conifer stands. On infertile sites, the pure conifer stands were well below the maximum tree size and density relationship compared to fertile sites or mixed stands, suggesting under-utilized site resources were available for nitrogen-fixing alder.

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25. Birchler, T.M., R. Rose and D.L. Haase. 2001. Fall fertilization with N and K: effects on Douglas-fir seedling quality and performance. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 16(2): 71-79.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        growth

                        tree physiology

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 1+1 seedlings from coastal Oregon, USA, were applied with two fertilizers (NH4NO3+K2SO4 and (NH4)2SO4+KCl) at four rates (0, 80, 160, 320 kg N and K/ha) split over three application dates (September 19, October 13, November 1, 1996). Fertilizer type did not affect total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) levels on any of the sampling dates. By January 10, TKN concentrations had increased 16, 30 and 34%, and chloride concentrations had increased 57, 77 and 112% relative to the seedlings without fertilizer, for 80, 160 and 320 kg N+K/ha treatments, respectively. Nitrate levels increased briefly after the first application of NH4NO3+K2SO4. Potassium levels remained relatively unchanged. Levels of most other nutrients, as well as foliar dry weight, increased between September 16 and January 10, but these increases were generally unrelated to the fertilizer treatments. Root growth potential and cold hardiness did not differ among treatments. Seedlings that received 160 or 320 kg N/ha broke bud an average of 3 days earlier than the seedlings without fertilizer. Chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) of seedlings with fertilizer was consistently higher than that of seedlings without fertilizer on November 13 and December 30. These treatment differences were not reflected in seedling outplanting performance after one growing season.

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26. Blake, J.I., R. Linderman and D. Lavender. 1988b. Seedling vigor of Douglas fir and western hemlock in relation to ethylene exposure levels and ethane production during cold storage. In Proceedings: 10th North American Forest Biology Workshop, 'Physiology and genetics of reforestation', University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, July 10-22, 1988. Eds. J. Worrall, J. Loo-Dinkins and D.P. Lester. pp. 235-242.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree morphology

                        tree phenology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The effects were examined of ethylene treatment on Pseudotsuga menziesii and Tsuga heterophylla 2-yr-old bare root seedlings lifted in October or December (in a nursery in Washington) and stored for 2 and 7 days. Seedlings exposed to 0.5 p.p.m. ethylene at +1 degrees C for 7 days exhibited reduced bud and root activity. These effects were apparently reversed at 5.0 p.p.m. In a second experiment, reducing ethylene concentrations with KMnO4 during storage at +1 or +10 degrees C for 30 days did not affect foliage colour, but root and bud activity were generally enhanced. Ethylene concentrations in control bags ranged from 0.80 to 2.24 p.p.m. in October-lifted seedling bags and from 0.10 to 1.3 p.p.m. in December-lifted samples. The quantity of ethane in stored bags of P. menziesii seedlings was closely related to an increase in foliage discoloration. Little or no ethane was measured in T. heterophylla storage bags.

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27. Blake, J.I. and R.G. Linderman. 1992. A note on root development, bud activity, and survival of Douglas-fir, and survival of western hemlock and noble-fir seedlings, following exposure to ethylene during cold storage. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 22(8): 1195-1200.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree morphology

                        tree phenology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Three cold storage experiments were conducted with bare-root (2+0) Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings from coastal Oregon and eastern Washington Cascade sources. The objectives were to determine the effects of ethylene at ambient and below-ambient (absorbed by KMnO4 pellets) concentrations, and at 0.5 and 5 p.p.m. ethylene, during short-term storage on subsequent root development and bud activity, and to relate these results to survival in the field at sites in Washington and Oregon, after prolonged cold storage. Root numbers and lengths were measured 28 days after a 7-day storage period after lifting seedlings on 27 September and 1 December. In the coastal source, root numbers and lengths in the 5 p.p.m. ethylene treatment were, respectively, 46 and 49% greater in September, and 22 and 13% greater in December, than the controls. No comparable treatment effects were found for the Cascade source. Neither the KMnO4 nor the 0.5 p.p.m. ethylene treatments affected root development in either seed source. For terminal buds in the controls, the number of days to 50% bud break was increased 2-8 days by a 30-day cold storage period compared with a 7-day period. For the coastal source, no increase in the time to 50% bud break was observed in the 5 p.p.m. ethylene treatment. Seedling survival was evaluated in the field for the same treatments following 4 months cold storage for the Douglas fir sources, coastal western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and noble fir (Abies procera). Survival for the 5 p.p.m. ethylene treatment compared with the control was increased by 55% in the coastal Douglas fir source and by 13% in western hemlock. These results suggest that stimulated root development and bud activity may be partially responsible for the observed survival increase following cold storage at elevated ethylene levels.

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28. Bledsoe, C.S. and R.J. Zasoski. 1983. Effects of ammonium and nitrate on growth and nitrogen uptake by mycorrhizal Douglas-fir seedlings. In Tree root systems and their mycorrhizas. Ed. D. Atkinson. pp. 445-454.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        growth

                        tree physiology

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In a greenhouse pot study, 1-yr-old mycorrhizal (inoculated with Hebeloma crustuliniforme) and non-mycorrhizal Douglas fir seedlings were grown in sandy forest soil amended with 10% of clay minerals (bentonite and/or kaolinite) and ammonium or nitrate fertilizer. Ht. growth, root and shoot DM and accumulation of nitrogen and P were greater in mycorrhizal than non-mycorrhizal seedlings, especially in the nitrate treatment. Ammonium interacted with kaolinite to reduce survival which again was poorer in the absence of mycorrhiza.

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29. Bloomberg, W.J. 1988. Modeling control strategies for laminated root rot in managed Douglas-fir stands: model development. Phytopathology 78(4): 403-409.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        site preparation

                        mechanical preparation

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: A model of laminated root rot caused by Phellinus [Inonotus] weirii was developed to assess potential control strategies in managed Pseudotsuga menziesii stands. The model mimicked key processes in disease initiation and development quantified as functions of time and space. These processes were horizontal and vertical tree root distribution, root contact with inoculum and among root systems, spread of mycelium through root systems, root decay, reduction of diam. growth in infected trees, tree mortality and persistence of inoculum in roots of stumps and killed trees. The processes were expressed as mathematical functions which were integrated in a computer program to calculate spread of the disease and stand-growth loss and mortality. Data for quantification of functions were obtained by experiments and from the literature. Simulated control practices included infected stump removal, sanitation fellings and mixed planting of Douglas fir and resistant species. Accuracy of the model was tested by comparing calculated disease spread and mortality with the following data: (1) spread and damage in two 60-yr-old, 1-ha stands in Oregon, (2) results from a statistically based model for spread and damage that had performed satisfactorily, and (3) observed spread and damage behaviour in stands of different ages and growth rates. Results from the model compared favourably with all of the above situations.

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30. Bloomberg, W.J. and G. Reynolds. 1988. Equipment trials for uprooting root-rot-infected stumps. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 3(3): 80-82.

Keywords:      site preparation

                        mechanical preparation

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Residual roots from Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) were measured following stump-root extraction one yr after harvesting a 55-yr-old, 314 stems/ha, 47% Douglas fir, 17% maple (Acer macrophyllum), 16% red cedar (Thuja plicata), 6% western hemlock stand with 20% infection by Phellinus weirii in the Cowichan valley, Vancouver Island, Canada. Extraction was by a Caterpillar D8H with brush-clearing blade, a 180-hp backhoe or a 115-hp backhoe. All 3 machines recovered more than 90% of root vol. The small backhoe left significantly greater numbers and lengths of root residues per msuperscript 3 soil, though the vol. of residues was greatest for the Caterpillar. An earlier study suggested that a root density of 32 roots/msuperscript 3 was needed to produce one root contact; as the least efficient treatment by the Caterpillar left 23.2 roots/msuperscript 3 in the ground, it is suggested that this would provide insufficient contacts with a new tree crop to transmit infection.

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31. Brand, D.G. 1986a. A competition index for predicting the vigour of planted Douglas-fir in southwestern British Columbia. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 16(1): 23-29.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: As a method of quantifying brush competition, data from 124 planted Douglas firs, age 1-5 yr, were used to derive a competition index to predict changes in tree vigour measured as a relative production rate. The index, which includes measures of brush proximity, relative ht. and % ground cover, appears to act as a measure of light interception around the tree crown. Tree vigour was found to be largely a function of the age of the tree from planting and the competition index. Foliage-based measures of growth vigour were related more strongly to the index than measures of b.a. or ht. The index has potential for assessing interspecific competition problems on suitable sites. Caution must be used in extrapolating results outside Douglas fir plantations on moist rich sites in coastal BC.

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32. Brandeis, T.J., M. Newton and E.C. Cole. 2001. Underplanted conifer seedling survival and growth in thinned Douglas-fir stands. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 31(2): 302-312.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        site preparation

                        chemical preparation

                        release treatments

                        chemical release

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        regeneration

Abstract: In a multilevel study conducted at the Oregon State University's McDonald-Dunn Research Forest, Oregon, USA, to determine limits to underplanted conifer seedling growth, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir (Abies grandis), western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) seedlings were planted in January 1993 beneath second-growth Douglas-fir stands that had been thinned in 1992 to basal areas ranging from 16 to 31 m2/ha. Understorey vegetation was treated with a broadcast herbicide (glyphosate + imazapyr) application prior to thinning, a directed release herbicide (glyphosate, plus triclopyr for tolerant woody stems) application 2 years later, or no treatment beyond harvest disturbance. Residual overstorey density was negatively correlated with percent survival for all four species. Broadcast herbicide application improved survival of grand fir and western hemlock. Western redcedar, grand fir and western hemlock stem volumes were inversely related to overstorey tree density and this effect increased over time. There was a strong indication that this was also the case for Douglas-fir. Reduction of competing understorey vegetation resulted in larger fourth-year stem volumes in grand fir and western hemlock.

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33. Brandeis, T.J., M. Newton and E.C. Cole. 2002. Biotic injuries on conifer seedlings planted in forest understory environments. New Forests 24:1-14.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        site preparation

                        chemical preparation

                        release treatments

                        chemical release

                        thinning

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The effects of partial overstorey retention, understorey vegetation management, and protective Vexar(R) tubing on the frequency and severity of biotic injuries in a two-storied stand underplanted with western redcedar (Thuja plicata), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir (Abies grandis), and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) were investigated. The most prevalent source of damage was browsing by black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionis columbiana); deer browsed over 74% of Douglas-fir and over 36% of western redcedar seedlings one or more times over the four years of this study. Neither the spatial pattern of thinning (even or uneven) nor the density of residual overstorey affected browsing frequency. Spraying subplots may have slightly increased browsing frequency, but the resulting reduction of the adjacent understorey vegetation increased the volume of all seedlings by 13%, whether or not they were browsed. Vexar(R) tubing did not substantially affect seedling survival, browsing damage frequency, or fourth-year volume. Greater levels of overstorey retention reduced frequency of second flushing. Chafing by deer and girdling by rodents and other small mammals began once seedlings surpassed 1 m in height. Essentially all grand fir seedlings exhibited a foliar fungus infection.

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34. Brix, H. 1993. Fertilization and thinning effect on a Douglas-fir ecosystem at Shawnigan Lake: a synthesis of project results. B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report 196. X + 64 p.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        thinning

                        growth

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

                        carbon allocation

                        wood quality

                        tree physiology

                        photosynthesis

                        economics

Abstract: Treatments were initiated in 1970-71 in a 24-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) near Shawnigan Lake, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, to determine the effects of 3 intensities of thinning (removing none, one-third and two-thirds of basal area) and 3 levels of urea fertilizer (0, 224 and 448 kg N/ha) on the growth and biology of the trees. Subsidiary experiments were established during 1972-87 to examine the effects of high doses of urea (672-1344 kg N/ha), ammonium nitrate as an N source instead of urea, understorey response to thinning and fertilizer, and responses to P and S fertilizer.

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35. Buermeyer, K.R. and C.A. Harrington. 2002. Fate of overstory trees and patterns of regeneration 12 years after clearcutting with reserve trees in Southwest Washington. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 17(2): 78-85.

Keywords:      thinning

                        regeneration

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Changes in management objectives for some forestlands in the Pacific Northwest have spurred interest in the creation of multistoried stands and the use of natural regeneration systems, but data on such systems are lacking. We assessed the status of the overstory trees and the regeneration 12 yr after a clearcut harvest with reserve trees in an even-aged, 145-yr-old Douglas-fir stand on a moderately productive site (site class 3) in southwest Washington. The 15 ha harvest unit was superimposed over two areas differentially thinned 15 and 34 yr before clearcutting. The clearcut harvest retained 18 trees/ha with a mean diameter of 63 cm. The reserved overstory trees had a 93% survival rate after 12 yr; most dead trees had been windthrown. Diameter growth for the reserved trees averaged 3.3 cm and was greatest during the most recent 3 yr period, which also had the highest growing-season precipitation. In a 1 ha mapped area, there were 5,854 seedlings/ha, and more than 99% of the regeneration was Douglas-fir. Most seedlings were less than 2 m tall. Seedling density was somewhat clumped (value of 2.1 for Pielou's index of nonrandomness), but 79% of randomly located 4.04 m2 (mil-acre) plots and 98% of 5x5 m grid cells had at least one conifer seedling. There was no obvious pattern of regeneration based on direction from the reserved trees, but both seedling density and seedling size within the drip lines of reserved tree crowns were less than in the rest of the area. The number of seedlings was similar on the two halves of the plot corresponding to the original thinning blocks, but seedling size and age differed. In the half of the study plot that had been twice lightly thinned, only 14% of the seedlings were >0.5 m tall; however, 41% of the seedlings were >0.5 m in the block that had been thinned more heavily. There was no difference between the thinning blocks in the ages of seedlings <less or =>0.5 m tall (mean age of 5 yr). This example of clearcutting with reserve trees resulted in reasonable survival of the overstory trees and adequate stocking but slow growth rates in the naturally regenerated Douglas-fir. Heavier thinning before harvest was associated with more advance regeneration, more shrub cover, and less windthrow of the reserved trees than in the more lightly thinned block. If an abundance of tree species other than Douglas-fir was desired on this site, interplanting would be required.

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36. Busse, M.D., G.O. Fiddler and A.W. Ratcliff. 2004. Ectomycorrhizal formation in herbicide-treated soils of differing clay and organic matter content. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 152:23-34.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        growth

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

                        soil properties

                        mycorrhizal response

Abstract: Herbicides are commonly used on private timberlands in the western United States for site preparation and control of competing vegetation. How non-target soil biota respond to herbicide applications, however, is not thoroughly understood. We tested the effects of triclorpyr, imazapyr, and sulfometuron methyl on ectomycorrhizal formation in a greenhouse study. Ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and white fir seedlings were grown in four forest soils ranging in clay content from 9 to 33% and organic matter content from 3 to 17%, and treated with commercial formulations of each herbicide at 0, 1.0, and 2.0 times the recommended field rate. Many of the possible herbicide-soil combinations resulted in reduced seedling growth. Root development was particularly sensitive to the three herbicides, with an average of 51% fewer root tips compared to the control treatment. The ability of mycorrhizal fungi to infect the remaining root tips, however, was uninhibited. Mycorrhizal formation was high, averaging 91% of all root tips, regardless of herbicide, application rate, soil type, or conifer species. In agreement, soil microbial biomass and respiratory activity were unaffected by the herbicide treatments. The results show that these herbicides do not alter the capability of mycorrhizal fungi to infect roots, even at concentrations detrimental to seedling growth.

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37. Campbell, D.L. and J. Evans. 1988. Recent approaches to controlling mountain beavers (Aplodontia rufa) in Pacific Northwest forests. In Proceedings: Thirteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference, Monterey, California. pp. 183-187.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Investigations by the Denver Wildlife Research Center into ways of managing mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) populations are described. Methods were developed for alleviating mountain beaver damage to conifer trees being grown for timber in the Pacific Northwest. Studies initiated in 1986 indicated that aversive conditioning with Big Game Repellent Powder (BGR-P) dusted on culled Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings placed in burrows significantly reduced mountain beaver damage to planted seedlings treated with BGR-P and to untreated seedlings. Trials also showed that strychnine-sword fern (Polystichum munitum) baits prepared with a 4.9% (active) strychnine paste concentrate were very effective and selective for mountain beaver control. Other topics discussed are the results of several probes with toxic baits and phosphine gas, trials with a drug (reserpine) and a wetting agent to induce hypothermia, and destruction of underground nests to prevent reinvasion.

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38. Campbell, S.J. and P.B. Hamm. 1989. Susceptibility of Pacific Northwest conifers to Phytophthora root rot. Tree Planters' Notes 40(1): 15-18.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: One-yr-old bare-rooted seedlings of 11 conifer species were inoculated with (a) Phytophthora cactorum, (b) P. cryptogea, (c) P. drechsleri, (d) P. megasperma or (e) P. pseudotsugae. Development of above-ground symptoms and root disease was followed for 10 wk. Isolates of (a), (b) and (e) caused the most overall mortality and isolates of (d) the least. Pinus contorta, P. ponderosa, P. monticola, Larix occidentalis, Libocedrus decurrens, Picea sitchensis and P. engelmannii showed tolerance to the root disease, Abies grandis and Pseudotsuga menziesii showed intermediate susceptibility and A. magnifica and Tsuga mertensiana were quite susceptible. Results are discussed in relation to management of conifer nurseries in the Pacific Northwest.

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39. Carroll, G.C. 1988. Facultative fungal egg-parasites as agents of gypsy moth mortality. Northwest-Environmental-Journal 4(2): 345-346.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Research on entomogenous fungi attacking the forest pest Lymantria dispar in Oregon is summarized. The pathogenicity of 20 fungi was tested against eggs in the laboratory and Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces farinosus, Spicaria coccospora and Verticillium lecanii were shown to be consistently pathogenic. Preliminary studies showed that some of these fungi can invade and persist in bark of Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] and oak [Quercus spp.], and subsequently infect egg masses on the bark.

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40. Carter, R.E. and R.P. Brockley. 1990. Boron deficiencies in British Columbia: diagnosis and treatment evaluation. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 37(1-3): 83-94.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Two case-studies are presented, outlining methods of diagnosis and treatment evaluation of boron deficiencies in a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stand in coastal southern British Columbia and a lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) stand near Burns Lake, in the interior of the province. Site conditions commonly associated with B deficiency are outlined, and relations between dormant-season foliar B concentration and growing-season precipitation and moisture stress are suggested. Diagnostic methods used in the study include examination of deficiency symptoms, and foliar-analysis techniques; evaluation of response for corrective fertilizer treatments is based on changes in frequency and severity of deficiency symptoms and growth responses, measured by graphical-analysis and changes in shoot length between treatments. Boron deficiencies and response to B fertilizers are difficult to confirm. Results of graphical-analysis and examination of frequency and severity of deficiency symptoms were inconclusive, while changes in shoot length identified a measurable response in the Burns Lake fertilizer trial with lodgepole pine. Deficiencies appear to be acute rather than chronic, and may not occur in untreated control trees for several years after establishment of fertilizer trials. Alternative causes for deficiency symptoms are also common, further complicating diagnosis and evaluation of response to treatment. It is concluded that all future trials should include nitrogen and/or other limiting nutrients with and without B to aid in identification of acute B deficiencies and deficiencies induced by increasing growth.

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41. Chanway, C.P. 1997. Inoculation of tree roots with plant growth promoting soil bacteria: an emerging technology for reforestation. Forest-Science 43(1): 99-112.

Keywords:      nursery operations
tree/stand protection
growth

                        tree/stand health

                        mycorrhizal response

Abstract: Results from studies performed with beneficial asymbiotic tree root associated bacteria are reviewed in this article in relation to the possible uses of such microorganisms for artificial forest regeneration. The review includes sections on plant growth promoting bacteria for pine (Pinus spp.), spruce (Picea spp.), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). Seedling root systems are colonized heavily by asymbiotic soil bacteria, many of which have the potential to influence plant growth significantly. A heterogeneous group of these microorganisms is well known for their ability to colonize roots and stimulate growth of agricultural plant species, sometimes doubling seedling biomass accumulation only a few weeks after inoculation, but more usually resulting in less spectacular biomass gains (e.g., 15%-30% greater than uninoculated controls within a growing season). Plant growth promoting soil bacteria may exert such effects through a variety of mechanisms, and include microorganisms that stimulate seedling emergence or infection by symbiotic fungi and bacteria. Other plant beneficial soil bacteria possess biological control activity or are capable of transforming plants genetically. Inoculation of tree seedlings with such bacterial before outplanting would be an inexpensive, environmentally benign, and easily applied nursery treatment, but comparatively little work has been performed with these microorganisms in forestry. Recent results with various tree species, however, indicate that seedling performance can be significantly enhanced through bacterial inoculation of root systems: pine and spruce biomass increased 32%-49% 1 yr after inoculation and outplanting at a reforestation site. In addition, infection by desired species of ectomycorrhizal fungi can also be enhanced by inoculation with certain strains of root colonizing bacteria.

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42. Chastagner, G.A., R.S. Byther, J.D. MacDonald and E. Michaels. 1984. Impact of Swiss needle cast on postharvest hydration and needle retention of Douglas-fir Christmas trees. Plant-Disease 68(3): 192-195.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Healthy Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) Christmas trees were compared with those infected by Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii for needle loss and dehydration after cutting. The presence of infected needles increased the rate of dehydration (as measured by changes in xylem water potential) of cut trees placed in water or left dry. Fungicide applications 1 yr before harvest significantly improved retention of 1-yr-old needles on trees displayed either wet or dry, whereas applications during the year of harvest made no difference in retention of either current-season or 1-yr-old needles.

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43. Childs, S.W. and L.E. Flint. 1987. Effect of shadecards, shelterwoods, and clearcuts on temperature and moisture environments. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 18(3): 205-217.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree/stand health

                        soil properties

                        tree physiology

                        tree phenology

Abstract: A comparison was made of two common techniques used to improve seedling survival on hot, dry reforestation sites. Adjacent shelterwood and clearcut sites in SW Oregon, USA, planted with 2+0 Douglas fir, were located and instrumented to compare temp. and moisture. In addition, cardboard shadecards were placed beside half of the seedlings studied. Seasonal measurements or observations of soil moisture, soil temp., solar radiation, air temp., stomatal diffusion resistance, seedling phenology and survival provided the basis for comparisons. Shelterwoods and shadecards improved seedling survival in relation to the clearcut. Both treatments affected soil temp. but the nature of the effects was different. The shelterwood canopy reduced solar radiation incident at the soil surface and caused cooler soil temp. throughout the soil profile. Shadecards reduced soil temp. only to a depth of 20 mm. Both treatments reduced the duration of periods of high soil temp. Shelterwood treatment delayed seasonal water loss and reduced seedling water stress as measured by stomatal resistance. Shadecards did not significantly affect seedling stomatal resistance. Differences in seedling survival caused by shadecards and shelterwoods are apparently due to different influences on the seedling microclimate. Shelterwood causes a large reduction in soil temp. as well as decreased seedling water stress. Shadecards modify the soil temp. less extensively and so have less effect on seedling survival.

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44. Christiansen, E.C. and S.G. Pickford. 1991. Natural abatement of fire hazard in Douglas-fir blowdown and thinning fuelbeds. Northwest-Science 65(4): 141-148.

Keywords:      thinning

                        precommercial thinning

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The changes over time in fuelbed loading and depth in precommercially thinned and windthrown low altitude stands of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were investigated in the Bull Run Watershed, Oregon, using standard fuel inventory techniques. Non-linear least squares regressions were fitted to the resulting data. Slash from precommercial thinning lost half of its original loading and depth within 2 yr. No foliage was retained on twigs and branches after 1 yr. Changes in fuels from windthrown trees were similar to those in slash, except that more material was present initially. Fine fuels (<3 inches in diameter) decreased to background levels within 2-4 yr, but large fuels persisted for longer. Sound logs became rotten after about 80 yr. The study confirmed that the fire hazard after precommercial thinning slash and wind throw was abated after 3 yr.

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45. Colangeli, A.M., L. McAuley and J.N. Owens. 1990. Seasonal occurrence of potential ice-nucleating bacteria on Douglas fir foliage and seed cones. New-Forests 4(1): 55-61.

Keywords:      seed orchard management

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        reproduction

Abstract: Plant frost damage can involve interactions between certain surface bacteria and low temperatures. The bacteria contain glycoproteins, which can nucleate ice above -5 degrees C, thus making the plants on which they live more susceptible to freezing. Preliminary studies to determine if bacteria were present on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and whether they exhibited ice-nucleating properties, are reported. Total bacteria and fluorescent Pseudomonas populations were monitored on buds, conelets and foliage of five trees in a Douglas fir seed orchard on Vancouver Island, Canada, in April 1986 and between October 1986 and May 1987, over periods that spanned two pollination seasons. Seasonal variation in bacterial numbers was observed, with highest numbers occurring in late winter and early spring. Bacterial populations active in ice nucleation were found. Bacterial numbers during pollination were higher in 1986 than in 1987. Conelet abortion at pollination was also higher in 1986 (55%) than in 1987 (11%). A relation may exist between bacterial populations and conelet abortion at pollination.

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46. Cole, E.C. and M. Newton. 1989a. Height growth response in Christmas trees to sulfometuron and other herbicides. Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science (Vol. 42): 129-135.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Abies procera, A. grandis and Pseudotsuga menziesii cv. Menziesii were evaluated for tolerance to sulfometuron (0.05-0.21 kg/ha), atrazine (4.5 kg/ha) and hexazinone (2.2 kg/ha). Herbicides were applied pre-budbreak and sulfometuron was also applied post-budbreak. Weeds were suppressed equally effectively by all rates and herbicides pre-em. Low rates of sulfometuron were less effective post-em. There was no significant damage to A. procera seedlings, although the highest rate of sulfometuron slowed growth significantly. A. grandis was not affected by any treatment. All treatments caused injury to 1-year-old P. menziesii, primarily needle chlorosis and slight stunting. Growth was best in atrazine-treated plots. For 3-year-old P. menziesii, injury was not significant but high rates of sulfometuron caused cosmetic damage. Best growth was observed with hexazinone and worst with sulfometuron. Post-budbreak applications and high rates of sulfometuron reduced growth more than pre-budbreak application and low rates.

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47. Cole, E.C. and M. Newton. 1989b. Seasonal efficacy comparison of two glyphosate formulations. Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science (Vol. 42): 136-142.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Glyphosate formulations with 13% (Roundup) and without (Accord) surfactant were compared at 0.84 and 1.68 kg/ha, applied June-Oct. against Alnus rubra, Rubus spectabilis, R. parviflorus, R. ursinus and Pteridium aquilinum in a Pseudotsuga menziesii cv. menziesii plantation. No differences in efficacy between the two formulations against any species were noted. All species were controlled better by high rates of herbicide. R. spectabilis and R. parviflorus were controlled <less or =>100%, although July applications were least effective. A. rubra was reduced <less or =>80% and early application gave best control. Rates of application had less effect on Pteridium aquilinum control (<less or =>98%), and Oct. applications were least effective. Damage to Pseudotsuga menziesii was worst with June applications and decreased through the year. Oct. treatment caused negligible damage.

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48. Cole, E.C., M. Newton and D.E. White. 1986. Response of northwestern hardwoods, shrubs, and Douglas-fir to Arsenal and Escort. Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science (Vol.39): 93-101.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Arsenal (imazapyr) and DPX-T6376 (metsulfuron) were evaluated for scrub control in Pseudotsuga menziesii plantations at 3 sites in Oregon in 1984-85. Arsenal produced the most complete and consistent control of Acer macrophyllum when applied in late summer, but early summer applications were more effective against the sclerophyll brush species Arbutus menziesii, Ceanothus velutinus var. laevigatus, Arctostaphylos columbiana and A. viscida. High rates of Arsenal gave good control of Alnus rubra and Rubus spectabilis, but did not control R. laciniatus or R. procerus. On all the controlled species, growth of new foliage was decreased or prevented. DPX-T6376 reduced the crown vol. of A. macrophyllum and killed the sclerophyll brush species, all Rubus spp. but not A. rubra. Both chemicals produced severe injury to P. menziesii.

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49. Cole, E.C., M. Newton and D.E. White. 1988. Efficacy of imazapyr and metsulfuron methyl for site preparation and conifer release in the Oregon Coast Range. Forest-Research-Laboratory,-Oregon-State-University Research-Note 81. 7 p.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Imazapyr (Arsenal) and metsulfuron methyl (Escort) were tested at 3 rates for controlling shrubs in young Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations on 3 sites in the Oregon Coast Range. Imazapyr was highly effective on red alder (Alnus rubra) and bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), but was less effective on salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) and other blackberry (Rubus) species. Metsulfuron-methyl was ineffective on red alder and bigleaf maple, but gave excellent control of salmonberry, Himalaya blackberry (R. procerus) and evergreen blackberry (R. laciniatus). Both chemicals caused severe injury to Douglas fir seedlings, especially when applied during the growing season. It is concluded that these herbicides are promising for site preparation, but have limited use for release of Douglas fir.

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50. Coleman, M., J. Dunlap, D. Dutton and C. Bledsoe. 1987. Nursery and field evaluation of compost-grown conifer seedlings. Tree-Planters' Notes 38(2): 22-27.

Keywords:      nursery operations

nursery fertilization
growth

tree physiology
tree/stand health

Abstract: Seedlings of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), noble fir (Abies procera) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) were raised in beds that had been treated with 0, 2, 4 or 6 inches of compost (fir/hemlock sawdust and municipal sewage sludge, 3:1) at a nursery in Carson, Washington. In autumn 1983, the 2+0 stock was lifted, stored until spring 1984 and then planted out on Mt. St. Helens, Washington (Douglas fir), near Estacada, Oregon (noble fir) or E. of the Cascade crest near Leavenworth, Washington (ponderosa pine). Data are given on the ht., biomass and concn. of N, P, Zn, Cu, Pb, Ni and Cd after 1 yr in the nursery beds and on the ht. and survival for 2 yr after planting. The responses of the seedlings to the compost, the immobilization of nutrients and the accumulation of heavy metals are discussed.

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51. Colinas, C., D. Perry, R. Molina and M. Amaranthus. 1994b. Survival and growth of Pseudotsuga menziesii seedlings inoculated with biocide-treated soils at planting in a degraded clearcut. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 24(8): 1741-1749.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree morphology

Abstract: To determine the factors of transfer soils responsible for increased seedling survival and growth, planting holes, at a site in SW Oregon, were inoculated with forest, plantation, and clear-cut soils subjected to one of 8 treatments: (i) treated with fertilizer to test for effects of nutrients; treated with biocides to test for effects of (ii) grazers (microarthropods or nematodes), (iii) protozoa, (iv) fungi, or (v) bacteria; (vi) pasteurized; (vii) Tyndallized; or (viii) untreated. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings were planted in June 1990 and seedling growth and survival was assessed in December 1990. Survival was increased by inoculation with untreated plantation soils, but not if they were fertilized or treated with dimethoate + carbofuran (grazercide), fumagillin (protozoacide), or oxytetracycline + penicillin (bactericide). Addition of untreated forest soil did not increase survival. For all soils, survival was increased by captan (fungicide), pasteurization and Tyndallization. Untreated plantation and forest soil transfers increased dry weights whereas neither did when treated with dimethoate + carbofuran. Dry weights of seedlings given clear-cut soil were increased by fertilization, pasteurization and Tyndallization of the soil; the latter two treatments also increased the number of short roots. It is hypothesized that stimulation of seedling growth by soil transfers was related to an increased rate of nutrient mineralization due to microbivorous soil animals contained within the transfer soils. Soil transfers may have enhanced seedling survival by at least two mechanisms: (i) by providing a safe site for beneficial rhizosphere organisms to proliferate, free from competing organisms that have proliferated in the clear-cut soil; and (ii) through volatile organic compounds, especially ethylene, that stimulated seedling root growth.

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52. Copes, D.L. 1983. Failure of grafted Douglas-fir planted at Monterey, Calif. Tree-Planters' Notes 34(3): 9-10.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree grafting

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree phenology

Abstract: Trees were grafted onto established rootstocks (grown from rooted cuttings from Oregon or seedlings from California) in Oregon in April 1979, and in Dec. 109 of these were transplanted to a site on the Monterey Peninsula, California. Grafts were examined in July 1981. More than 30% of the transplanted grafts had died of early incompatibility and the cumulative 1980 and 1981 leader growth of the survivors averaged 12 cm. Identical grafts in Oregon showed 2-10% death due to incompatibility and av. leader growth of 1-2 m. It is suggested that the atypical unreliable budflush and reduced leader elongation in Monterey was due to winter temperatures that were not cool enough to satisfy bud dormancy requirements. It had been hoped to establish seed orchards out of range of pollen contamination from local Douglas fir stands.

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53. Copes, D.L. 1989. Bark scoring problem grafts in five Douglas-fir seed orchards: a case history. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service. Research-Note PNW-RN-487. 12 p.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree grafting

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Grafted seed orchards of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) often suffer tree losses caused by delayed graft incompatibility. Bark scoring (to improve translocation across the graft union) was performed in April, June and August 1983 and 1985 on 379 trees, 5-16 yr old, in 5 seed orchards in western Oregon. Cuts were made with a small chainsaw every 3.1 to 4.3 cm across the defective union. Effects of scoring were assessed in 1984 and 1986. Many trees showed improved vigour after treatment and annual mortality was only 1.6% when all defective grafts were treated. The greatest improvement in average compatibility occurred in trees treated in April, when the youngest grafts responded most favourably. Inherent and induced incompatibility was found, with brownline round the entire or part of the circumference of the union, respectively. Wound tissue in induced incompatible grafts was usually free of brownline, but brownline appeared in all wound tissue of inherently incompatible grafts. These latter grafts will require bark scoring every 2-3 yr to maintain a live cambium at the union.

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54. Copes, D.L. 1999. Breeding graft-compatible Douglas-fir rootstocks (Pseudotsuga menziesii (MIRB.) FRANCO). Silvae-Genetica 48(3/4): 188-193.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree grafting

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree phenology

                        tree/stand health

                        genetic relationships

Abstract: A study encompassing 24 years was conducted to determine if a breeding programme could produce highly graft-compatible rootstocks for P. menziesii. A total of 27 trees of apparent high graft compatibility were selected and crossed to produce 226 control-pollinated families. Seedlings were grown, field planted and grafted with test scions. Graft unions from field tests were evaluated anatomically for internal symptoms of incompatibility. Average compatibility of progeny from the 226 crosses was 90.6%, compared with 65% in native populations. Breeding values were calculated for each parent by the best linear prediction (BLP) procedure. Average compatibility resulting from crossing among the top 10 parents was estimated by breeding values as 95.4%. Field-test results of progeny from 34 crosses among the 10 most compatible parents showed 96% compatibility. In addition to field-tests for graft compatibility, nursery tests of seedlings from 124 crosses were evaluated for second-year vegetative bud flush and seedling height. It was possible, while maintaining adequately high levels of graft compatibility, to breed both for resistance to spring frost damage and for increased seedling height.

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55. Copes, D.L. and N.L. Mandel. 2000. Effects of IBA and NAA treatments on rooting Douglas-fir stem cuttings. New-Forests 20(3): 249-257.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The effectiveness of 6 indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and four 1-napthaleneacetic acid (NAA) concentrations, 4 combinations of IBA and NAA concentrations, and control were tested for their ability to enhance rooting frequency of Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] cuttings. Two IBA and one NAA treatments were also compared to the control for quality of root system. Between 1984 and 1998, six independent studies were conducted in mist or fog environments with the 14 clones. Auxin concentrations tested ranged from 0 to 123 mM IBA and 0 to 10 mM NAA. Auxin, clone and auxin by clone effects were significant in every study, although individual clone analyses showed only two clones to differ significantly for auxin. All auxin treatments except the 10 mM NAA treatment induced significantly greater rooting percentage than the control, but no single auxin, auxin concentration or combination of auxins was clearly superior in every study. The 10 mM NAA concentration was the only concentration tested that reduced rooting percentage to less than the control. Both NAA and IBA appeared to have broad ranges of root-enhancing activity. However, within the effective range of IBA evaluated, 24.6 or 49.3 mM produced the greatest rooting percentage in 4 of 5 studies testing IBA. NAA solutions with concentrations between 2.5 and 7.5 mM NAA generally resulted in similar rooting success. Rooting responses to increased IBA and NAA were both nonlinear; rooting decreased with both too little and too much auxin. Combinations of IBA and NAA in the same solution did not increase rooting percentage above what was achieved with one auxin. For root system quality, auxin treated cuttings in one study, had significantly better root systems than control, but there was no difference in the other study in which root quality was estimated.

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56. Crook, R.W. and W.E. Friedman. 1992. Effects of pollen tube number and archegonium number on reproduction in Douglas-fir: significance for seed orchard management. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 22(10): 1483-1488.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        seed orchard management

                        reproduction

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Analyses of the relations between pollen tube number or archegonium number and the number of fertilization events per ovule (fertilization number) in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) growing at a seed orchard near Centralia, Washington, indicated strong trends toward higher levels of simple polyembryony as both pollen tube number and archegonial number increased on a per seed basis. These relations have a significant bearing on the management of conifer seed orchards. Simple polyembryony has been proposed to be an effective means of increasing competition on a per seed basis in conifers and, potentially, the overall fitness of progeny. In conifers, supplemental mass pollination has the direct effect of increasing the number of pollen tubes per ovule. Clonal variation in average number of archegonia per ovule is also likely to exist among conifers. It is proposed that when used together, supplemental mass pollination and selection of clones with high archegonial averages may enhance the fitness of seed orchard progeny.

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57. Crouch, G.L. and M.A. Radwan. 1981. Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers on deer browsing and growth of young Douglas-fir. Pacific-Northwest-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service. Research-Note PNW-RN-368. 15 p.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        tree/stand health

growth
tree physiology

Abstract: N and P fertilizers were applied in March 1968 singly or in combination at a rate equivalent to 200 lb/acre of N or P to young trees (2-5 ft tall) in Oregon and Washington. Trees were examined and measured for up to 4 yr. In the first year after treatment trees given the N-only fertilizer in Washington were more heavily browsed by black tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), but this effect disappeared in the second year. Height growth was increased by N-only treatment in taller trees in Oregon after 1 and 2 yr, but the effect had disappeared after 4 yr. Total N content was significantly increased by the N and N + P treatments in the first year, but this effect also disappeared after 2 yr. The amounts of moisture, ash, Ca and P, and diam. growth were not affected by any treatments.

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58. Cruickshank, M.G., D.J. Morrison and Z.K. Punja. 1997. Incidence of Armillaria species in precommercial thinning stumps and spread of Armillaria ostoyae to adjacent Douglas-fir trees. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 27(4): 481-490.

Keywords:      thinning

                        precommercial thinning

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The frequency of Armillaria species in precommercial thinning stumps and the interaction at root contacts between Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) crop trees and stumps colonized by A. ostoyae were investigated at sites in four biogeoclimatic zones along a transect from the coast through the southern interior of British Columbia. The frequency of stumps colonized by A. ostoyae and A. sinapina varied among lower, mid, and upper slope transects. On coastal sites, A. sinapina dominated fresh hygrotopes and A. ostoyae dominated slightly dry hygrotopes, and the frequency of both fungi was low on moist hygrotopes. On interior sites, A. ostoyae was found over all hygrotopes, but with lower frequency on the driest sites. The distribution of the two Armillaria species on sites is apparently determined by anoxia associated with periodic soil saturation, by drying of the soil, and by host response limiting spread of pathogenic species. At root contacts between colonized stump roots and crop tree roots, transfer and infection by A. ostoyae occurred more frequently in moist biogeoclimatic zones than dry ones. Lesion size on crop tree roots was related to inoculum volume at some sites and to stump root diameter at others. The percentage of lesions on roots at which crop trees formed callus was associated with tree bole volume. The results indicate that there will be crop tree mortality following precommercial thinning, especially where inoculum levels are high in the Interior Cedar-Hemlock and Interior Douglas fir biogeoclimatic zones.

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59. Curtis, R.O. 1987. Levels-of-growing-stock cooperative study in Douglas-fir: Report No. 9 - some comparisons of DFSIM estimates with growth in the levels-of-growing stock study. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PNW-RP-376. 34 p.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        growth

tree/stand health
computer modeling

Abstract: Initial stand statistics for the 9 levels-of-growing-stock (LOGS) study installations in Oregon and Washington, USA, and Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, were projected by the Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stand simulation program (DFSIM) over the available periods of observation. Thinnings were simulated by use of observed top height trends, actual residual basal areas, and actual ratios of cut tree diameters to stand diameter before cutting (d/D). Estimates were compared with observed gross and net volumes and basal area growth, net change in quadratic mean diameter, and change in number of trees. Although the LOGS installations included regimes quite different from those in most of the data used to construct DFSIM, overall agreement was reasonably good. Results indicated some density-related bias in the thinned stands and a need for revision in the method used to control the maximum density in the DFSIM program and in the associated mortality estimates.

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60. Curtis, R.O. and D.D. Marshall. 2002. Levels-of-growing-stock cooperative study in Douglas-fir: report no. 14 - Stampede Creek: 30-year results. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PNW-RP-543. xi + 77 p.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        growth

                        yield

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Results of the Stampede Creek installation of the levels-of-growing-stock (LOGS) study in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) are summarized. To age 63 (planned completion of 60 feet of height growth), volume growth on the site III natural stand has been strongly related to level of growing stock, but basal area growth-growing stock relations were considerably weaker. Marked differences in tree size distributions have resulted from thinning. Periodic annual volume increments at age 63 are two to three times greater than mean annual increment; this stand is still far from culmination. Results for this southwest Oregon installation are generally similar to those reported from other LOGS installations, although development has been slower than on the site II installations that make up the majority of the series.

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61. DeYoe, D.R., H.R. Holbo and K. Waddell. 1986. Seedling protection from heat stress between lifting and planting. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 1(4): 124-126.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        planting operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Seven protective treatments were evaluated for preventing overheating of 2+0 Douglas fir seedlings in Kraft paper bags. Trials were conducted in May 1982 at Corvallis, Oregon on 3 clear days with max. air temp. of 78 degrees F and a hazy day with max. temp. 66 degrees . Seedlings were returned to cold storage (35 degrees ) overnight. Seedling temp. differed significantly between treatments. Unprotected seedlings (paper bag only) in full sun reached 89 degrees after 7 h. Green canvas caused increased heating rates and higher temp. (104 degrees after 7 h). A white sheet and a crinkled foil wrap performed no better than a paper bag alone. Canvas painted off-white reduced max. temp. to 80 degrees . Heavy shading (2% of full sun) and Mylar with white surface towards the sun were the most effective materials for preventing overheating (max. temp. 59-60 degrees ). Mylar with the silver surface facing the sun was less effective (max. temp. 71 degrees ).

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62. Dimock, E.J., II and E.B. Collard. 1981. Postplanting sprays of dalapon and atrazine to aid conifer establishment. Pacific-Northwest-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PNW-RP-280. iii + 16 p.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: A mixture of dalapon and atrazine at 8 and 4 lb/acre, respectively, or dalapon or atrazine alone were applied to control perennial grasses and forbs competing with newly planted seedlings of ponderosa pine and Douglas fir. In 4 studies in Oregon in 1975, herbicides were spot sprayed around individual seedlings. In 2 studies in Washington and Oregon in 1976, herbicides were broadcast sprayed. The mixture consistently controlled grass and forbs better than either herbicide alone, reducing grass and forb cover respectively by 80-82% and 48-58% in the first year. Control persisted for 2-4 yr. Varying results are reported as to the effects of the different treatments on height growth and survival.

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63. Donald, D.G.M. and D.G. Simpson. 1985. Shallow conditioning and late fertilizer application effects on the quality of conifer nursery stock in British Columbia. B.C.-Ministry-of-Forests Research-Note 99. viii + 36 p.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Eight trials on 2+0 stock of Picea engelmannii, P. glauca, P. sitchensis, Pinus contorta and Pseudotsuga menziesii (var. glauca and var. menziesii) in 4 nurseries were conducted to compare the effects of shallow conditioning (undercutting and wrenching at 10 cm deep) with those of the standard conditioning regime (undercutting and wrenching at 20 cm) on nursery performance, storage and field performance. The application of a complete NPK fertilizer 50 days before lifting was also evaluated. Shallow conditioning and late fertilizer application improved the root growth capacity at lifting, but could not replace cold exposure for hardening Pseudotsuga menziesii. Shallow conditioning had little effect on survival after planting and reduced initial ht. increment of all species. Application of fertilizer just before lifting improved the early growth of the trees without adversely affecting survival. Planting seedlings some 5 cm deeper than they stood in the nursery improved establishment.

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64. Driessche, R.v.-d. 1983. Growth, survival, and physiology of Douglas-fir seedlings following root wrenching and fertilization. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 13(2): 270-278.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        tree/stand health

                        tree morphology

                        tree physiology

                        growth

Abstract: Seedlings at different nurseries on Vancouver Island were subjected to wrenching treatments during their 2nd year of growth using a fixed blade at 20-25 cm below the bed surface. In the first experiment, wrenching reduced water potential of trees on unirrigated loam soil by an av. of 300 kPa during Aug. and Sept. Wrenched trees lifted in Oct. and stored at 2 degrees C until May, showed 25% higher survival than unwrenched trees 1 yr after planting. Trees lifted in Dec. had uniformly high survival (98%) and showed no effect of wrenching. Wrenched trees from irrigated plots had lower shoot length relative growth rates (RGR) than unwrenched trees during the year after planting. In the second experiment, wrenching treatments were applied to seedlings, growing in a loamy sand, for different periods between 15 May and 11 Sept. as follows: (a) no wrenching, (b) early summer, (c) midsummer, (d) late summer and (e) all summer. Three fertilizer treatments (none, and 2 amounts of NPK) were applied to each wrenching treatment, and seedlings were lifted for storage at 2 degrees C in Oct. and Dec. Stored trees and freshly lifted trees were planted at 700 m alt. on 3 March. Wrenching increased root dry wt., particularly when additional fertilizer was applied, but had no measurable effect on cold hardiness or root growth capacity. Nevertheless, late summer wrenching increased survival 5 and 7% above control 1 and 2 yr after planting. Wrenching had little subsequent effect on new shoot growth of planted trees during the 2 yr after planting. However, late-summer wrenched trees showed significantly more new shoot growth than all-summer wrenched trees. More fertilizer reduced cold hardiness and survival of cold-stored trees, but increased root growth capcity. Cold hardiness (measured by electrical impedance) was correlated with survival of cold-stored trees after planting (rsuperscript 2 = 0.82). Root growth capacity, averaged over all fertilizer treatments was closely correlated with survival of stored and freshly lifted trees (rsuperscript 2 = 0.93). Foliar nutrient concn. were reduced by wrenching, but fertilizing increased nutrient reserves within the seedling.

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65. Driessche, R.v.-d. 1984b. Seedling spacing in the nursery in relation to growth, yield, and performance of stock. Forestry-Chronicle 60(6): 345-355.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        growth

                        tree morphology

                        carbon allocation

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In 3 experiments at nurseries in coastal British Columbia Picea sitchensis, P. glauca, Pinus contorta var. latifolia, Thuja plicata and coastal and interior varieties of Pseudotsuga menziesii were sown in May 1979, 1980 or 1982 and grown at spacings ranging from 0.5 to 12 cm. A 1-cm increase in spacing increased seedling dry wt. by 0.5-1.5 g and root collar diam. by 0.2-0.25 mm up to a spacing of about 8-10 cm. Above this, response was less. Ht. of 2-yr-old seedlings was increased slightly or even decreased by wider spacing. Height : diameter ratios decreased sharply and shoot : root dry wt. decreased or remained unchanged with wider spacing. The number of needle primordia in 2-0 P. menziesii buds increased up to a spacing of 2 cm, and the number of 1st and 2nd order branches were also increased by wider spacing. Increases in root growth capacity were associated with wider spacing in T. plicata and Picea sitchensis. In a test of 3 types of precision seeders, none produced anything like accurate seed placement. Irregularity was increased by 10-20% non-viable seed and winter mortality. Increased spacing of 2-5 cm between seedlings was justified by the yield of acceptable seedlings only when the culling standard was increased to a root collar diam. of about 6 mm. Three yr after planting out the survival of P. glauca was increased 11% by wider spacing. After 2 yr P. sitchensis survival was increased 13% by wider spacing. Both species grown at wider spacing maintained a ht. and diam. advantage over those from close spacing.

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66. Driessche, R.v.-d. 1988a. Nursery growth of conifer seedlings using fertilizers of different solubilities and application time, and their forest growth. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 18(2): 172-180.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        growth

                        carbon allocation

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Beginning in May 1982, seedlings of Douglas fir and white spruce were grown for 2 yr in a bare-root nursery in southern British Columbia. Seedlings were treated with four types of commercial fertilizers (slow-release Osmocote, ammonium phosphate, ammonium sulphate and Hi-Sol, a soluble fertilizer with 20-20-20 NPK) at 2 different frequencies during both years to give total N applications of 0, 210 or 350 kg/ha. In addition, Douglas fir seedlings that had been grown for 2 yr without fertilizer were treated with the same amounts of fertilizer as a late season treatment during 1 Sep.-20 Oct. 1983. Ammonium fertilizers produced larger seedlings than Osmocote and Hi-Sol. Dry wt. increased with application rate, but frequency of application had only a small effect. Fertilizer increased the proportion of stem dry matter and decreased the proportion of needle and root dry matter. Dry wt. of 2+0 white spruce seedlings was correlated with soil pH, extractable NO3 and available P measured in Sep. of the first growing season. Douglas fir seedlings were planted out in Mar. 1984. Late-season fertilized seedlings had greater N and P tissue concn. than seedlings fertilized during the growing season. Survival and growth rate after planting were also both greater in late-season fertilized seedlings. Results suggested that fertilizer composition was more important than fertilizer solubility for nursery growth.

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67. Driessche, R.v.-d. 1988b. Response of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) to some different fertilizers applied at planting. New-Forests 2(2): 89-110.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Four fertilizer experiments to assess type of fertilizer, dosage and timing, were conducted on eastern Vancouver Island, BC, Canada. Two-yr-old, bare root planting stock was used except in experiment 3, where container stock was compared with bare root stock. Little growth response was obtained after one year, but height growth responses of 12 to 31% were measured after 3 to 6 yr with fertilizers supplying 8.4 to 16.8 g N per tree. Growth responses were little affected by type of fertilizer and were primarily due to N, with release rate having no marked effect. The exception to this was triple superphosphate which did not increase growth but did increase survival. Survival was reduced by ammonium sulphate and to a lesser extent by Agriform (NPK). Container seedlings responded more to fertilization at planting than bare root seedlings. Seedling N, P and K concn. and contents declined following planting for 6 months and only started to recover after July. Application of fertilizer caused a small increase in seedling nutrient concn. regardless of date, but this had no detectable effect on dry weight measured 6 wk later.

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68. Driessche, R.v.-d. 1991a. Influence of container nursery regimes on drought resistance of seedlings following planting. I. Survival and growth. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 21(5): 555-565.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree morphology

                        carbon allocation

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In a 2 year study, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and white spruce (Picea glauca) seedlings, grown in Styroblock containers in a container nursery from February to July 1988, were exposed to three temperatures and three levels of drought stress applied factorially during 18 July to 29 September 1988. Mean temperatures of 13, 16 and 20 degrees C were imposed in growth chambers, in a cooled plastic house, and in an ambient plastic house, respectively. Control, medium and severe levels of drought stress were imposed in a series of eight cycles, resulting in mean xylem pressure potentials of -0.32, -0.50 and -0.99 MPa, respectively. Seedlings were kept in the ambient plastic house until January 1989, when they were lifted and cold-stored until transplanting to covered 0.5-m deep sand beds, which provided hygric, mesic, and xeric conditions for testing all species and treatments. At the end of nursery growth, an increase in nursery temperature increased height and height : diameter ratio in all species and shoot:root dry weight ratio in Douglas fir and lodgepole pine. Increase in temperature also increased the number of seedlings with large well-formed buds in white spruce, but reduced the number in Douglas fir. Drought stress reduced height and dry weight in all species and bud length in lodgepole pine. After 9 weeks in sand beds, low nursery temperature increased survival (19% for lodgepole pine and white spruce grown in the xeric bed), except for Douglas fir grown in the xeric bed. Nursery drought stress also increased survival (16% for Douglas fir and lodgepole pine in the xeric bed), but had little effect on white spruce. Low temperature and drought stress treatments that increased survival also reduced height and dry weight of lodgepole pine and white spruce after one growing season in sand beds. Survival showed significant negative correlations with height, dry weight and height:diameter and shoot : root weight ratios. Low nursery temperature continued to affect growth 16 weeks after planting, increasing relative growth rate and allometric ratio (K) of Douglas fir and reducing K of white spruce.

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69. Driessche, R.v.-d. 1991b. Influence of container nursery regimes on drought resistance of seedlings following planting. II. Stomatal conductance, specific leaf area, and root growth capacity. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 21(5): 566-572.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Seedlings of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and white spruce (Picea glauca) were grown in a container nursery from February to July 1988 and then exposed to three temperatures and three levels of drought stress applied factorially during mid-July to October 1988. Seedlings were retained in a shelter house until January 1989, when they were cold-stored until early May. Measurements of stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration (E), and specific leaf area (SLA) were made at the end of the treatment period in September 1988 and again after growth the following year at the end of June. Root growth capacity (RGC) was tested in early May 1989. Results were considered in conjunction with performance of other samples of the same plants that had been planted in sand beds in April 1989, where irrigation was regulated to provide three levels of moisture stress. Low temperature (13 degrees C) generally reduced gs and E, which were adjusted for xylem pressure potential, and SLA, in all species by the time nursery treatment was completed at the end of September. No effect of nursery temperature treatment on gs or E could be detected when new needles were measured in June and July (after 9 to 12 weeks of growth), but SLA of lodgepole pine increased with nursery temperature treatment, and SLA of white spruce decreased with treatment. RGC was higher for the 13 degrees C treatment than for the 16 and 20 degrees C treatments. Survival of outplanted seedlings was mainly inversely related to nursery temperature. Low nursery temperature reduced gs, E, and SLA and increased RGC. SLA of planted lodgepole pine increased with level of nursery drought treatment, and severe nursery drought increased gs under stress, when measured in June. No other effects of drought were detected, although drought treatment was effective in increasing survival of planted seedlings. It is suggested that other mechanisms, such as osmotic adjustment, were responsible for the results observed.

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70. Driessche, R.v.-d. 1992b. Changes in drought resistance and rootgrowth capacity of container seedlings in response to nursery drought, nitrogen, and potassium treatments. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 22(5):740-749.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

                        carbon allocation

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and white spruce (Picea glauca) seedlings, each represented by two seed lots, were grown in Styroblock containers in a greenhouse and plastic shelter house from February 1989 to January 1990. The seedlings were exposed to two N treatments (20 and 200 mg/litre) and three K treatments (5, 25 and 100 mg/litre) arranged factorially within three drought treatments. After winter storage, seedlings from a complete set of treatments were planted into hygric, mesic and xeric sand beds during 12-14 March. Increasing nursery drought stress increased survival of Douglas fir and lodgepole pine after planting, and high N treatment level increased survival of lodgepole pine and white spruce. Under xeric conditions, combined nursery drought and high N treatments increased survival of lodgepole pine by 33%, indicating the importance of nursery cultural regime for stock quality. Increase in nursery drought stress did not decrease seedling size by much; increase in N increased seedling size one season after planting. A positive relation between shoot : root ratio and survival in lodgepole pine and white spruce indicated that increase in N increased both shoot growth and drought resistance over the N range investigated. Only Douglas fir showed an interaction between drought and N treatment and a small response in both survival and dry weight to K application. Root growth capacity, measured at the time of planting, showed an approximate doubling in all species due to high N treatment, and was also increased in white spruce by drought stress. Survival and root growth capacity were poorly correlated, but dry-weight growth in sand beds was well correlated with root growth capacity. Shoot dry weight and percentage N in shoots measured after nursery growth were correlated with root growth capacity. Manipulation of root growth capacity by changing nursery treatment was possible without altering resistance to drought stress after planting.

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71. Dunsworth, B.G. 1985. Three-yr survival and height growth of 2+0 bareroot Douglas-fir seedlings treated with a Symbex root dip. Tree-Planters' Notes 36(1): 24-25.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Seedling roots were dipped in a sol. of Symbex [a stimulant containing fertilizer and microorganisms?] diluted 40:1 with water, or water before planting out in May 1980 on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Although the ht. growth of Symbex-treated trees was significantly greater in 1981, there were n.s.d. in total ht., ht. growth or survival after 3 growing seasons.

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72. Dunsworth, B.G. 1988. Douglas-fir fall root phenology: a bioassay approach to defining planting windows. In Proceedings: 10th North American Forest Biology Workshop, 'Physiology and genetics of reforestation', University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, July 10-22, 1988. Eds. J. Worrall, J. Loo-Dinkins and D.P. Lester. pp. 295-307.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree phenology

Abstract: Natural seedling root phenology during the autumn and spring was observed in Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] and western hemlock [Tsuga heterophylla] over several seasons on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. These observations were used to determine the soil climate conditions under which peak activity occurred. Mitotic indexing and total root tip counts were used to quantify root activity. Peak activity for both spring and autumn in both species could be reasonably bracketed by soil climate conditions of -1 bar soil tension and 4 degrees C. The hypothetical planting window defined by these soil climate conditions was then tested with a series of timing of planting studies for Douglas fir (autumn) and western hemlock (spring) containerized stock. The results indicated that although quality of planting stock and the season following planting are influential, a 10 to 15% survival and growth advantage can be gained by planting within the hypothetical window.

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73. Duryea, M.L. and S.K. Omi. 1987. Top pruning Douglas-fir seedlings: morphology, physiology, and field performance. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 17(11): 1371-1378.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery pruning

                        tree phenology

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

                        yield

Abstract: Seedlings from 9 seed sources at 6 nurseries in Washington, Oregon and California were treated with various pruning treatments including tall and short ht. (25 and 15 cm, respectively), early and late timing (6 wk after bud burst or 6 wk after bud set, respectively), pruning twice or no pruning. Seedlings were evaluated for phenology and quality, and graded in the nursery. For each seed source, seedlings were planted at field sites in their own zone and on one common site. Seedlings pruned tall and early began growing again within 5 wk and set buds 2 wk later than unpruned seedlings. Shippable yield of seedlings pruned tall and early and of unpruned seedlings were n.s.d, although more pruned seedlings had multiple leaders. Pruned seedlings were smaller than unpruned seedlings at the time of planting. Survival and growth were the same for pruned and unpruned seedlings in the 1st year after planting. Pruned seedlings grew more than unpruned seedlings in the 2nd year, but were still shorter after 2 yr. Field growth was greater in seedlings pruned tall or early than in seedlings pruned short or late. It is concluded that pruning should be continued as a cultural practice if it benefits nurseries, but that late short pruning should be avoided.

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74. Edgren, J.W. 1981. Field performance of undercut coastal and Rocky Mountain Douglar-fir 2+0 seedlings. Tree-Planters' Notes 32(3): 33-36.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Seedlings from 1 seed source each of Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii (coastal) and P. menziesii var. glauca (Rocky Mountain) were grown in a nursery in Washington and half were undercut at 15 cm below the surface at 1-yr-old. Seedlings were lifted in March the next yr (1968) and planted out at 2 sites in Oregon. Survival of undercut coastal firs 3 yr after planting was significantly better than controls. Survival of Rocky Mountain fir was not significantly affected by undercutting. Ht. growth of control seedlings of both varieties was significantly greater in their 1st season than that of undercut seedlings, but the differences disappeared the following year.

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75. El Kassaby, Y.A. 2000. Representation of Douglas-fir and western hemlock families in seedling crops as affected by seed biology and nursery crop management practices. Forest Genetics 7(4): 305-315.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        nursery operations

                        genetic relationships

                        tree/stand health

                        reproduction

Abstract: The impact of container-nursery management practices on the genetic representation of seedling crops of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) were evaluated. Two experiments, one for each species, were conducted in British Columbia, Canada, to determine the cumulative effects of seed-donor variation on germination parameters (percent and speed) and their interaction with container-nursery practices of thinning and culling on the genetic representation of each seed-donor in the resultant seedling crops. The experimental work was conducted on seedlots that were represented with equal contribution of seeds from 15 seed orchard parents (families). In each experiment, a total of 25 920 seeds were sown in four different arrangements to compare the crop development under single-, two-, and three-seeds per cavity (seeds within cavity were selected randomly among the 15 families) and family blocks (seeds within block belonged to one family). This experimental design allowed determination of inter- and intra-family competition. Within each experiment, a total of 15 015 cavities were used and the identity of every seed within every cavity within each arrangement was maintained throughout the study. Families were compared based on: (1) changes in their rank order from seedling emergence (germination) to post-thinning and post-culling status, and (2) relative performance of each family from seed contribution to seedling production. Changes were observed in both assessments (i.e., rank and relative contribution). Path analysis was used to determine the percent contribution of each factor to seedling production. It was determined that seedling germination, germinant thinning, and seedling culling all affected seedling production, indicating the presence of several consecutive unintentional bottlenecks in the process. Family sowing with culling standards that recognize the growth differences among families in the nursery and single seed sowing after understanding the inter-/intra-family competition are recommended for seedling production to maintain seedling-crop family representation.

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76. El Kassaby, Y.A., D.G.W. Edwards and C. Cook. 1990a. Impact of crop management practices on seed yield in a Douglas-fir seed orchard. Silvae-Genetica 39(5-6): 226-230.

Keywords:      seed orchard management

                        tree/stand protection

                        reproduction

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The impact of two crop-management practices, supplemental mass pollination (SMP) and overhead cooling, on seed yield in a 13-yr-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seed orchard was studied in Saanichton, British Columbia. A 2x2 factorial trial of SMP/no SMP and cooling/no cooling was applied. There were no significant differences in potential seed yield per cone, average number of successful fertilizations, and average number of filled seeds per cone between cooling or SMP treatments or combinations. Results indicated that within-orchard pollen cloud was not a factor limiting seed yield. Average number of seeds infested by the Douglas fir seed wasp (Megastigmus spermotrophus) larvae was significantly (P<0.05) less when cooling was applied, indicating that the treatment was effective in disrupting the synchrony between the presence of ovipositing females and developing cones.

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77. El Kassaby, Y.A. and A.J. Thomson. 1996. Parental rank changes associated with seed biology and nursery practices in Douglas-fir. Forest Science 42:228-235.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        nursery operations

                        reproduction

                        genetic relationships

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The impact of container-nursery management practices on the genetic composition of seedling crops was evaluated in an experimental study in a seed orchard in British Columbia. The study was designed to determine the cumulative effects of: (1) differences in parental reproductive output in bulk seedlots; (2) parental variation in germination parameters (percentage and speed); and (3) the interaction of these parameters with container-nursery practices of thinning and culling, and their effect on the genetic representation of parents in the resultant seedling crops. Results from the experimental study were compared with predictions of a stochastic simulation designed to estimate the consequences of differential parental seed contribution, and seed germination percentage and germination speed on indicators of crop performance. The experimental study was conducted on a Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) bulk seedlot that was representative of the differential seed contributions from 19 seed orchard parents. The nursery study included a total of 42 000 seeds. Seeds were sown at three seeds per cavity. Within the 14 000 cavities used, the identity of every seed was maintained throughout the study. Comparisons of parents were made based on: (1) changes in their rank order from sowing to postthinning and postculling status; and (2) relative performance from seed contribution to seedling production. Changes were observed in both assessments. Path analysis was used to determine the percentage contribution of each factor to seedling production. It was determined that germination, thinning, and culling contributed 66, 20, and 14%, respectively, to seedling production, indicating the presence of three consecutive bottlenecks in the process. Single seed or individual family sowing in the nursery was recommended for seedling production to maintain genetic diversity.

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78. Entry, J.A., K. Cromack, Jr., R.G. Kelsey and N.E. Martin. 1991. Response of Douglas-fir to infection by Armillaria ostoyae after thinning or thinning plus fertilization. Phytopathology 81(6): 682-689.

Keywords:      thinning

                        fertilization

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth 

                        tree morphology

                        carbon allocation

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Second-growth stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were thinned to a 5- x 5-m spacing (TT); additional plots were thinned and fertilized once with 360 kg of N (as urea)/ha (TF). An unthinned, unfertilized stand (UT) served as a control. Ten years after treatment, trees were inoculated with 2 isolates of A. ostoyae. Trees receiving the TF and TT treatments produced greater diameter growth, leaf area, and wood production/msuperscript 2 leaf area per year than did those under the UT treatment. Rates of infection by A. ostoyae were highest in trees that received the TF and lowest in trees that received the TT treatment. Concn of sugar, starch and cellulose in root bark tissue were highest in trees receiving the TF treatment and lowest in trees receiving TT treatment. Concn of lignin, phenolics and protein-precipitable tannins were highest in root bark from TT trees and lowest in root bark from TF trees. Biochemical parameters of root bark tissue were regressed with incidence of infection; coefficients of determination (rsuperscript 2) ranged from 0.07 (starch) to 0.57 (phenolic compounds). Ratios of the energetic costs of phenolic and of lignin degradation to the energy available from sugars (Epd:Eas and Eld:Eas) were correlated with incidence of infection (rsuperscript 2 = 0.77 and 0.70, respectively). It is concluded that thinning combined with fertilization may predispose P. menziesii trees to infection by A. ostoyae by lowering concn of defensive compounds in root bark and increasing the energy available to the fungus to degrade them.

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79. Erickson, R.D. 1995. Douglas-fir tussock moth. In Forest Pest Leaflet 09. Pacific-Forestry-Centre,-Canadian-Forest-Service.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The recognition, biology, host plants, injuriousness, distribution and control of the lymantriid Orgyia pseudotsugata, especially on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), in British Columbia are discussed. Natural controls, such as parasitoids, predators and a nuclear polyhedrosis virus, normally control endemic populations, and a list is provided of 3 species of parasitic Diptera and 17 Hymenoptera that have been reared from the lymantriid in British Columbia.

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80. Fashler, A.M.K. and Y.A. El-Kassaby. 1987. The effect of water spray cooling treatment on reproductive phenology in a Douglas-fir seed orchard. Silvae-Genetica 36(5-6): 245-249.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        seed orchard management

                        tree/stand protection

                        genetic relationships

                        reproduction

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The effectiveness of reproductive bud cooling on genetic efficiency in a Douglas fir seed orchard in British Columbia, Canada, was tested by comparing the reproductive bud phenology in 3 cooled and 3 uncooled years. The cooling system was found to affect 2 major elements affecting seed orchard genetic efficiency, namely pollen contamination levels and panmictic equilibrium, as well as insect infestation, frost damage, seed yield and management effectiveness. Based on these results, a permanent irrigation/cooling system is recommended for Douglas fir seed orchards.

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81. Feller, M.C. 1990. Herbicide application followed by prescribed fire to convert a brushfield into a conifer plantation in south coastal B.C.: a combination of the initial effects of two treatments. B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA Report 146. 40 p.

Keywords:      site preparation

                        chemical preparation

                        prescribed fire

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        soil properties

                        stand conditions

Abstract: A field study was carried out in Pseudotsuga menziesii stands in British Columbia, Canada, to investigate the effects on vegetation of glyphosate applications in September 1987 or July 1988, followed by burning in October 1988. Results did only show slight differences between treatments.

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82. Ferris, R.L. and H.A. Woensdregt. 1983. Western false hemlock looper in British Columbia. In Pest-Leaflet. Pacific-Forest-Research-Centre, Canada.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The infestation history, hosts, distribution, appearance, life history, damage and control of Nepytia freemani are described.

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83. Figueroa, P.F. 1993. Efficacy and cost of ground-applied herbicide methods for red alder control. Down to Earth 48(1): 6-10.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        stand conditions

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The effects on red alder [Alnus rubra] mortality, diam. at breast height and height, and any phytotoxic effects to Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] of Garlon 4 (triclopyr) at 4 lb/gallon and Chopper EC (imazapyr) at 2 lb, applied by stream line, thin line and low vol. treatments, and of Garlon 3A (triclopyr) at 3 lb, Roundup (glyphosate) at 3 lb and Arsenal (imazapyr) at 4 lb applied by cut stump treatment were evaluated in streamside buffer zones in two 6-year-old P. menziesii plantations in SW Washington. All treatments resulted in good control of A. rubra, but the most cost-effective control was achieved by the stream line application of Garlon 4, followed by low vol. basal or thin line treatments of Garlon 4 and cut stump treatment with 50% Garlon 3, 45% Roundup and 10% Arsenal. Negligible P. menziesii damage was caused by cut stump treatments, but damage occurred with basal-bark treatments although Garlon 4 generally caused less injury than Chopper EC.

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84. Figueroa, P.F., R.C. Heald and S.R. Radosevich. 1990. Sensitivity of actively growing Douglas-fir to selected herbicide formulations. Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science 43: 45-52.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The results of field studies at 2 sites in Washington and California indicated that aerial spraying of 2,4-D at 4 lb/acre, triclopyr ester at 4 lb/acre or 2,4-D + triclopyr ester at 1.2 lb/acre + 0.5 lb/acre to control red alder [Alnus rubra] led to a significant reduction in Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] growth and survival if applied during periods of active conifer growth. Herbicides applied singly at high rates caused significantly more mortality than the herbicides in combination. At both sites, trees had not fully recovered 5 and 6 years after treatment; damaged trees were at least 1 year behind untreated trees in growth.

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85. Filip, G.M. and L.M. Ganio. 2004. Early thinning in mixed-species plantations of Douglas-fir, hemlock, and true fir affected by Armillaria root disease in Westcentral Oregon and Washington: 20 year results. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 19(1): 25-33.

Keywords:      thinning

                        precommercial thinning

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Four 10- to 20-year-old plantations were treated to determine the effects of precommercial thinning on tree growth and mortality caused by Armillaria root disease in the Cascade Range of western Oregon and Washington, USA. One plantation was Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and noble fir (Abies procera), one Douglas-fir and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), one Douglas-fir alone, and one Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana). After 20 years, differences in crop tree mortality between thinned and unthinned plots were not significant (P=0.9768). Quadratic mean diameter growth of crop trees, however, was significantly (P=0.0053) greater in thinned than in unthinned plots. Crop tree basal area/ac growth was significantly (P=0.0008) greater in thinned plots. There were no significant (P=0.6647) differences in basal area/ac growth of all trees between thinned and unthinned plots. Apparently, from a root-disease perspective, precommercial thinning does not affect incidence of crop-tree mortality after 20 years, but individual and per acre tree growth of crop trees increase significantly.

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86. Filip, G.M. and D.J. Goheen. 1995. Precommercial thinning in Pseudotsuga, Tsuga, and Abies stands affected by armillaria root disease: 10-year results. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 25(5): 817-823.

Keywords:      thinning

                        precommercial thinning

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Four 10- to 20-year-old stands were pre-commercially thinned to determine the effects of thinning on tree growth and mortality caused by armillaria root disease (Armillaria ostoyae) in the Cascade Range of western Oregon and Washington, USA: one stand of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) and noble fir (Abies procera), one of Douglas fir and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), one of Douglas fir alone, and one of Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana). After 10 years, differences in crop-tree mortality between thinned and unthinned plots were not significant in any of the four stands. Tree radial growth was significantly increased by thinning in 6 of 15 plots. Crop-tree basal area (per hectare) growth was significantly greater in thinned plots. Basal area (per hectare) growth of all trees was significantly greater in unthinned plots. Apparently, from a root-disease perspective, pre-commercial thinning does not affect the incidence of crop-tree mortality after 10 years, but tree growth increases significantly.

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87. Fischer, V.F. and V.F. Carrithers. 1992. Tolerance of one and two year old douglas-fir seedlings to triclopyr applications. In Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science, 10-12-March-1992.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In field trials conducted near Marquam, Oregon, during 1988-90, the tolerance was evaluated of douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] seedlings to triclopyr ester and triclopyr amine (both applied at 0.5-1.5 lb/acre) during the 1st 2 years after transplanting. Triclopyr amine did not cause significant damage to 1- or 2-year-old plants. Triclopyr ester in a water carrier resulted in injury to terminal buds of 1-year-old plants when applied at 1.5 lb, and in a diesel carrier resulted in damage to lateral and terminal buds when applied at concn of <more or =>1.0 lb. Two-year-old plants were more tolerant than 1-year-old plants to both triclopyr formulations, with triclopyr ester at 1.5 lb in a water carrier resulting in only slight needle injury. However, in a diesel carrier, triclopyr ester at 1.5 lb still resulted in terminal and lateral bud damage.

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88. Folk, R.S., S.C. Grossnickle, P. Axelrood and D. Trotter. 1999. Seed lot, nursery, and bud dormancy effects on root electrolyte leakage of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 29(8): 1269-1281.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

                        photosynthesis

                        growth

                        tree phenology

Abstract: The effects of seed lot, nursery culture, and seedling bud dormancy status on root electrolyte leakage (REL) of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings were assessed to determine if these factors should be considered when interpreting REL for seedling quality. The relationships of REL to survival, net photosynthesis (Pn), stomatal conductance (gwv) mid-day shoot water potential ( Psi mid), root growth capacity (RGC), and relative height growth were determined for each factor in experiments in 1994-95 in nurseries in British Columbia. Nursery culture had no effect on the relationship between REL and all other measured attributes. Seed lot affected the relationship between REL and Pn, Psi mid, and survival. However, critical REL (i.e., lowest value associated with detectable root damage) and PS80 REL (i.e., level associated with an 80% probability for survival) were similar between seed lots. Bud dormancy status affected the relationship between REL and survival, RGC, and relative height growth. Control levels of REL, critical REL, and PS80 REL decreased as the number of days required for 50% terminal bud break declined. Thus, terminal bud dormancy status must be known before REL can be used to assess seedling quality. If the bud dormancy status of Douglas-fir populations is known, then critical and PS80 REL levels may be useful as indices of root damage.

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89. Fraser, R.G., J.D. Beale and R.J. Nevill. 1995. Reduction of Phellinus weirii inoculum in Douglas-fir stumps by the fumigant Telone II-B. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 25(1): 63-68.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Two dosages of Telone II-B (1,3-dichloropropene) at 3.4 and 6.7 mL/kg of stump and root biomass were tested to determine the efficacy in reducing Phellinus weirii inoculum in infected Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), stumps. After 21 months, both doses of Telone II-B proved equally effective and significantly reduced residual P. weirii mycelium in infected roots. Fumigation reduced residual endotrophic P. weirii in the large-diameter root classes nearest the stump, but survival of the fungus was less affected with increasing distance from the stump and in the smaller root diameter classes. Treated stumps also had significantly fewer roots with ectotrophic mycelium than untreated stumps. Four weeks after application, soil samples taken near treated stumps revealed no evidence of the fumigant. These findings suggest that application of Telone II-B could be used as an effective control measure for P. weirii.

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90. Gardner, E.R. 1990. Fertilization and thinning effects on a Douglas-fir ecosystem at Shawnigan Lake: 15-year growth response. Canadian-Forest-Service, Pacific and Yukon Region Information-Report BC-X-319. ix + 42 p.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        thinning

                        growth

                        yield

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Responses after 15 yr to 3 rates of nitrogen (urea), applied at 0, 224 or 448 kg N/ha to a 24-yr-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stand in the very dry maritime region of British Columbia, were analysed on the basis of per hectare, individual tree, crop tree and tree size class. Thinned and unthinned plots were measured.

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91. Gourley, M., M. Vomocil and M. Newton. 1990. Forest weeding reduces the effect of deer-browsing on Douglas fir. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 36(2-4): 177-185.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In January and February 1981, three-year-old bare-root Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) transplants were established in four clear-felled locations in the Oregon Coast Range where browsing by black tail deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbiana) was expected. Protection was provided against browsing by 5 physical (rigid protection tube 7.5x75 cm; protective netting, paper budcaps; leather guard 20x5 cm; and 'Remae' budcaps) and one chemical ('Deer Away') treatment, each of which was tested with and without complete wood control with glyphosate. After five years, none of the protective treatments provided any growth advantages; some even caused growth losses. In contrast, weed control, with or without additional protective measures, consistently improved growth. By the 5th year, weeded trees averaged twice the biomass of unweeded trees, regardless of browsing. Average tree size was largest in the treatment with no weed competition and with no barriers to prevent browsing. Advantages of weeding were greatest on the poorest site. Weed control, in conjunction with the large size of transplants, appeared to prevent most loss due to damage from moderate deer-browsing.

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92. Green, R.N. and R.E. Carter. 1993. Boron and magnesium fertilization of a coastal Douglas-fir plantation. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 8(2): 48-53.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: A study was made of the role of boron and magnesium nutrition in the occurrence of severe growth distortion symptoms in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the Skwawka River valley of south coastal British Columbia. Four fertilizer treatments, including boron (2.25 kg/ha B), magnesium (42 kg/ha Mg), boron plus magnesium, and a control, were applied in conjunction with planting on a site believed to be deficient in these nutrients. After 5 growing seasons, only treatments containing boron (B and B + Mg) showed improved height growth compared to controls. The incidence of leader dieback, swollen leading shoots, and foliage distortion was significantly related to treatment, with virtually no occurrence in plots treated with boron. Seedling uptake of applied boron was high, with foliar concentrations of 45 p.p.m. found after the second growing season. Foliar B levels declined to 13-15 p.p.m. after 5 growing seasons. No significant increase in foliar magnesium levels was detected for either of the magnesium treatments. The reduction in the incidence of leader dieback, and shoot and foliar symptoms, in seedlings treated with B indicate that these symptoms were the result of boron deficiencies. This is the first study to verify boron deficiency in coastal Douglas fir through fertilizer trials.

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93. Greene, S.E. and W.H. Emmingham. 1986. Early lessons from commercial thinning in a 30-year-old Sitka spruce-western hemlock forest. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Note PNW-RN-448. 14 p.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree morphology

Abstract: Three commercial thinning treatments were applied to a 30-yr-old stand of Picea sitchensis and Tsuga heterophylla with Pseudotsuga menziesii that had been precommercially thinned at 15 yr old on the Oregon coast. Data were collected to determine the effects of thinning on diam. and ht. growth, the amount of damage and subsequent decay in remaining trees and relations between leaf area and volume production.

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94. Haase, D.L., J.H. Batdorff and R. Rose. 1993. Effect of root form on 10-year survival and growth of planted Douglas-fir trees. Tree-Planters' Notes 44(2): 53-57.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Douglas fir seedlings (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were planted with three root-form treatments including C-roots ('correctly' planted controls), L-roots, and J-roots. After 10 years, there were no significant differences in outplanting performance between the three root-form treatments on a good site in western Oregon. The results are in agreement with those of other studies, which suggests that when no other confounding planting errors are present, deformed root systems play a less dramatic role in subsequent field performance than is generally thought. These results in no way imply that poor planting is acceptable.

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95. Haase, D.L. and R. Rose. 1998. Ten years of herbicide testing in PNW forest nurseries. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society of Weed Science, Waikoloa, Hawaii, 10-12 March, 1998. pp. 50-52.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Nursery trials were conducted in Oregon in 1987-96 to investigate the level of weed control and phytotoxicity of herbicides applied to Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), noble fir (Abies procera), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), red alder (Alnus rubra) and bitterbrush (Picramnia pentandra) seedlings. Results indicated that lactofen, metolachlor and clethodim gave good weed control and caused little phytotoxicity. Notably, clethodim did not damage T. heterophylla. Oxadiazon caused phytotoxic symptoms at high but not low concentrations. However, clopyralid, isoxaben, pendimethalin, prodiamine and thiazopyr were deemed unsuitable for some or all species in nurseries on the basis of phytotoxic damage recorded in these and other trials.

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96. Haase, D.L., J. Trobaugh and R. Rose. 1999. Douglas-fir container stock grown with fertilizer-amended media: some preliminary results. Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service National Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations 1999, 2000, and 2001. RMRS P-24. 31-32 pp.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        growth

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: This paper presents the initial results of a study conducted in a nursery in Oregon, USA, to quantify the response of container grown Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings to various fertilizer treatments (Simplot's 13-13-13 and 17-5-11, and Scotts Company's 18-5-12 and 15-9-10) in terms of height, stem diameter and foliar nutrient content.


97. Hacker, A.L. and B.E. Coblentz. 1993. Habitat selection by mountain beavers recolonizing Oregon Coast Range clearcuts. Journal-of-Wildlife-Management 57(4): 847-853.

Keywords:      site preparation

                        mechanical preparation

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In Oregon, mountain beavers (Aplodontia rufa) are managed as pests in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands; they are normally removed from clearcuts prior to reforestation, but recolonization nevertheless poses problems to regenerating stands. Habitat selection by recolonizing mountain beaver was studied on 8 replanted clearcuts, 4 each of 2 different ages (1 yr old and 4-5 yr old), in the Coast Range mountains of Polk and Lincoln counties, Oregon between June 1989 and August 1990. Clearcuts were recolonized throughout, irrespective of distances from edge (Rsuperscript 2 = 0.01). Six habitat variables were selected by stepwise logistic regression to model recolonized versus non-colonized habitat. Mountain beavers selected areas with high amounts of small (<25 cm) and large diameter (>25 cm) woody debris, forage plants, and uprooted stumps; they were likely to recolonize areas that had soft soils and areas in drainages. The logistic function that included these 6 variables had a correct classification rate of 85% based on a jackknife procedure. Forest managers should find these habitat features useful for predicting mountain beaver recolonization and damage. Potentially productive approaches to habitat management and site preparation are suggested, including reduction of habitat suitability and colonist numbers by minimizing dead wood accumulations, and provisioning of alternate food sources to minimize tree damage without reducing recolonization.

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98. Hadfield, J.S. 1988. Integrated pest management of a western spruce budworm outbreak in the Pacific Northwest. Northwest-Environmental-Journal 4(2): 301-312.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        economics

Abstract: The integrated pest management of the tortricid Choristoneura occidentalis on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and true fir (Abies spp.) in the Northwest USA is described. Details of the population dynamics and impact of this pest are given. The integrated pest management programme involves the following steps: monitoring the pest-food plant system to measure populations and damage; evaluating the effects of the outbreak; developing alternative strategies for managing the outbreak; evaluating the economic and environmental consequences of these strategies; selecting a strategy; and monitoring the implemented strategy.

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99. Hadfield, J.S. and P.T. Flanagan. 2000. Dwarf mistletoe pruning may induce Douglas-fir beetle attacks. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 15(1): 34-36.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Fresh attacks by Douglas fir beetles (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae) to Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) trees growing in a camp site in Wenatchee National Forest, central Washington, USA, were found following pruning to remove dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium douglasii) infections. All Douglas fir trees with a diameter at breast height (dbh) of at least 12.7 cm were examined. Beetle attacks were found on 41% of pruned trees and 5% of unpruned trees. Among pruned trees, both the average number of branches pruned and the average dbh were greater in trees attacked by Douglas fir beetles than in unattacked trees.

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100. Haglund, W.A., K.W. Russell and R.C. Holland. 1981. Moss control in container-grown conifer seedlings. Tree-Planters' Notes 32(3): 27-29.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Seedlings grown in styroblock containers were sprayed with 8 surfactants, or combinations of surfactant and the fungicide captan. Phytotoxicity and moss control were recorded 7 and 14 days after treatment and trees were measured after 30-60 days. The least phytotoxic surfactant was X77; this had no significant effect on ht., stem diam. and total wt. of Pseudotsuga menziesii or Tsuga heterophylla seedlings. Almost complete moss control was achieved with 40-80 lb captan and 2.5-10 gal X77 in 100 gal water applied to Abies procera seedlings; treatment with the highest concn. (80 lb captan and 10 gal X77) was only phytotoxic when the seedlings already had foliar injury. In Tsuga heterophylla treatment with captan and X77 at various concn. caused tree injury only at 80-90 degrees F, but not at 60-65 degrees F.

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101. Hahn, P.F. and A.J. Smith. 1983. Douglas-fir planting stock performance comparison after the third growing season. Tree-Planters' Notes 34(1): 33-39.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        planting operations

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Three types of containerized (40, 75 or 125 cmsuperscript 3 containers) and bare rooted (2+1, 3+0 and plug-1 stock) seedlings were planted out in Oregon in Feb. 1979 on N. and S. facing slopes, clear felled in 1978. In general, containerized seedlings showed superior survival rates and greater height growth - particularly on the harsh S. slope, and lower reforestation costs. The 75-cmsuperscript 3 containerized seedlings are recommended, except for N. facing and wet coastal areas, where brush competition can be severe shortly after planting. In such areas, taller bare-rooted seedlings performed better.

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102. Hamm, P.B., S.J. Cooley and E.M. Hansen. 1984. Response of Phytophthora spp. to metalaxyl in forest tree nurseries in the Pacific Northwest. Plant-Disease 68(8): 671-673.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In tests on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) at 2 commercial forest tree nurseries in Ore., 1 application of Subdue (metalaxyl) suppressed root rot. Of 3 P. spp. isolated from treated seedlings (P. megasperma, P. drechsleri and P. pseudotsugae), only P. pseudotsugae decreased in isolation frequency because of the fungicide. Survival of P. spp. in infected seedlings remained high after treatment. At 1 nursery, 10 months after the first application, P. spp. were isolated from 92% of the seedlings across fungicide treatments, whereas at the 2nd isolation frequencies from seedlings were 77, 70, 29 and 13%, respectively, after 0, 1, 2 and 3 applications. P. was recovered from previously healthy seedlings 8 wk after they were transplanted into naturally infested, metalaxyl-treated soil.

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103. Han, H., L.D. Kellogg, G.M. Filip and T.D. Brown. 2000. Scar closure and future timber value losses from thinning damage in western Oregon. Forest-Products-Journal 50(1): 36-42.

Keywords:      thinning

                        tree/stand health

                        economics

Abstract: This study investigated bark growth and decay development after thinning damage at two western Oregon sites, and estimated value loss with a tree growth model. All scars that remained open in western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) had advanced decay 13 years after initial wounding. Scars less than 4 inches wide closed in 8 years. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) was more resistant to decay; no rot was observed in scars less than 21 years old. Advanced decay and pitch rings, however, were observed in 29-year-old scars, both open and closed. Because of these defects, future value loss increased with time after wounding and with higher stand damage levels. Fifty years after thinning, about 2% of the total future log value, or $189/ac. (1997$), could be lost in Douglas-fir stands with 20% stand damage and a 2-inch diameter deduction. This loss could be reduced to $58/ac. if stand damage were minimized to 5% with more careful techniques. The increase in thinning costs ($61/ac. for tractor thinning; $79/ac. for cut-to-length; $124/ac. for skyline; with a 5% increase in production time) that is incurred while trying to minimize stand damage could be justified if it reduced future value losses to crop trees.

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104. Hansen, E.M., J.K. Stone, B.R. Capitano, P. Rosso, W. Sutton, L. Winton, A. Kanaskie and M.G. McWilliams. 2000. Incidence and impact of Swiss needle cast in forest plantations of Douglas-fir in coastal Oregon. Plant-Disease 84(7): 773-778.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: An epidemic of Swiss needle cast, caused by the ascomycete Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii, is causing defoliation and growth reductions in Douglas-fir forest plantations along the Oregon Coast. The area of symptomatic plantations has been monitored annually since 1996 by aerial survey; in spring 1999, 119,500 ha were affected. Pathogen and symptom development have also been monitored on nine permanent plots in stands of differing disease severity. Infection levels and symptom severity are greatest in low elevation plantations close to the coast. In areas of severe disease, trees retain only current year needles. Defoliation is proportional to the number of stomata occluded by pseudothecia of the fungus, with needles being shed when about 50% of stomata are occupied, regardless of needle age. Fungus sporulation and premature needle abscission are greatest on the upper branches of trees. Annual application of fungicides increases needle retention significantly. Tree height and diameter growth and total tree volume are reduced by disease, and tree volume is significantly correlated with needle retention on our plot trees. The epidemic continues to be most severe in Douglas-fir plantations established on sites where Sitka spruce and western hemlock or red alder predominated in earlier times.

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105. Harper, P.A. and A.S. Harestad. 1986. Vole damage to coniferous trees on Texada Island. Forestry-Chronicle 62(5): 429-432.

Keywords:      thinning

                        precommercial thinning

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Microtus townsendii injured trees by removal of bark and cambium from stems, branches and roots of Douglas fir, western hemlock and, rarely, Pinus monticola on Texada Island, British Columbia. Damage occurred more frequently in precommercially thinned stands <40 yr old than in unspaced stands. Trees with d.b.h. <less or =>19 cm were damaged by voles, but there was no selection by diam. or age class. No trees of ht. >16 m were damaged. For trees <16 m, damage increased as ht. decreased. There were n.s.d. in growth rates of trees damaged by voles when comparing the 2-yr av. before spacing and vole damage with the av. after these events. Stands should continue to be monitored to evaluate long-term effects of vole damage. On the basis of these results, control of voles is not recommended.

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106. Harrington, T.B. and J.C. Tappeiner, II. 1997. Growth responses of young Douglas-fir and tanoak 11 years after various levels of hardwood removal and understory suppression in southwestern Oregon, USA. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 96(1/2): 1-11.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        manual release

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) was planted as 2-yr-old bare rooted seedlings on 2 sites in SW Oregon cleared of old-growth Douglas fir and understorey tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) in 1980, and broadcast burned in 1981. Planting was done in 1981 at one site and in 1982 at the second site. Height, diameter, and crown width of the young Douglas fir and sprout-origin tanoak were measured 1-11 years after reducing the density of the tanoak stand (in 1983, at 2 yr old) to 0, 25, 50 and 100% of its initial cover. On some of the experimental plots suppression of understorey vegetation was also carried out. Tanoak cover developed linearly with time, with steepness of the growth trajectory increasing at a diminishing rate with increasing percentage of initial tanoak cover. Fifth-year cover of understorey vegetation declined linearly with increasing percentage of initial tanoak cover. Survival of Douglas fir (96-100%) differed little among initial abundances of tanoak, while growth trajectories for its size became increasingly exponential with decreasing percentage of initial tanoak cover. Eleventh-year heights of Douglas fir were similar for 0, 25 and 50% of initial tanoak cover; however, diameter increased linearly with decreasing percentage of initial tanoak cover, and the slope of the relationship steepened with understorey suppression. The results indicate that young stands exhibiting a wide range of stand compositions and productivities can be established by early manipulations of tanoak and understorey abundance. Complete removal of tanoak plus understorey suppression are necessary to maximize Douglas fir growth, while productive, mixed stands can be achieved by removing 50% or more of tanoak cover.

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107. Harrington, T.B., R.G. Wagner, S.R. Radosevich and J.D. Walstad. 1995. Interspecific competition and herbicide injury influence 10-year responses of coastal Douglas-fir and associated vegetation to release treatments. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 76(1/3): 55-67.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        manual release

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Responses of competing vegetation and planted Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) were studied for 10 years after six herbicide and manual release treatments in the Washington and Oregon Coast Ranges. Studies were installed in six 2- or 3-yr-old plantations, with Douglas fir densities of 988 to 1482 plants/ha at time of planting and 721 to 1282/ha 2 to 3 years late. Research objectives were to quantify regional, long-term responses of vegetation (Douglas fir and non-coniferous species) to various levels of competition, light and soil water availability, and intensity versus importance of factors influencing Douglas fir growth. Three treatments reduced shrub cover relative to the untreated check: triclopyr in year 1, glyphosate in years 1-5, and repeated control (via several herbicide applications) in years 1-10. Reductions in woody cover from glyphosate stimulated increases in herb cover in years 3 and 5, while repeated control reduced herb cover in years 1, 2 and 5. Through year 10, Douglas fir survival (86-99%) varied little among treatments. Visual symptoms of herbicide injury to Douglas fir from triclopyr (45% of trees) and glyphosate (17% of trees) were associated with 0.1-0.2 m reductions in first-year height. After adjusting for tree size, Douglas fir growth in stem basal area 2 years after triclopyr was less than that of the untreated check, suggesting prolonged effects of herbicide injury. Because it sustained low levels of interspecific competition, caused minimal tree injury, and prevented overtopping cover from red alder (Alnus rubra), repeated control was the only treatment in which Douglas fir size (9.8 m height and 21 cm basal diameter in year 10) significantly exceeded (P<less or =>0.02) that of the untreated check (7.8 m height and 12 cm diameter).

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108. Harrison, R.B., S.P. Gessel, D. Zabowski, C.L. Henry, D.S. Xue, D.W. Cole and J.E. Compton. 1996. Mechanisms of negative impacts of three forest treatments on nutrient availability. Soil-Science-Society-of-America-Journal 60(6): 1622-1628.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        growth

                        soil properties

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Many forest management treatments are directly aimed at maintaining or enhancing forest productivity. There may also be secondary effects that detract from this goal. Three case studies in Washington state, USA, are discussed in which several mechanisms may have led to adverse secondary impacts. In the first study, pulp and paper (PIT) sludges were mixed into soil and growth of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), noble fir (Abies procera) and western white pine (Pinus monticola) was monitored. There was a significant negative correlation of height and diameter growth and C:N ratio for Douglas-fir and western white pine. In a second study, effects of 50 years of red alder (Alnus rubra) and Douglas-fir growth on soil chemistry and stand productivity were compared. When the 50-year-old stands were cut and red alder was established by planting into the soil of the former Douglas-fir and red alder forests, a reduction in available P in the soil of the previous red alder stand was observed. In a third study, high rates of low C:N ratio organic matter (300 t/ha) were added in municipal biosolids (~8000 kg N/ha) to Douglas-fir and grand fir (Abies grandis) plantations. Excess organic N in the biosolids apparently mineralized, nitrified, and contributed to soil acidification and accelerated cation leaching. Severe Mg deficiency (0.25 g/kg in biosolids-treated vs. 0.93 g/kg in untreated areas) might be the cause of observed foliar chlorosis and poor growth rates.

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109. Harrison, R.B., C.L. Henry and D.S. Xue. 1994b. Magnesium deficiency in Douglas-fir and grand fir growing on a sandy outwash soil amended with sewage sludge. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 75(1/2): 37-50.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

                        soil properties

Abstract: Soil and plant samples were collected from chlorotic plantations of grand fir (Abies grandis) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) near Seattle, Washington state, USA, in winter 1989. The soils had been amended in 1981 with an average of 300 dry t/ha of municipal sewage sludge. The sludge amendment resulted in an N application rate of approximately 8000 kg/ha. Foliage analysis indicated that a severe Mg deficiency (0.25 g/kg in sludge-treated vs. 0.93 g/kg in untreated areas) might be the cause of chlorosis. No other nutrient showed concentrations in the deficient or toxic ranges. Trace metal levels in foliage were increased significantly for Ni, Cd and Cr at sludge-treated sites, but were not at toxic levels. Soil samples taken to a depth of 1.4 m indicated the potential for soil acidification (up to 0.9 pH unit) in soil surface horizons. In addition, exchangeable Ca, Mg and K may have been depleted in surface horizons. Exchangeable Al and Fe were greater in the surface of sludge-treated sites. These observations, and the loss of much of the nitrogen added during the sludge amendment, indicated that nitrification and cation leaching were the most likely mechanism for acidification and depletion of exchangeable cations. Fertilizing the plantation with MgSO4 or dolomitic limestone was carried out in spring 1990. New foliage collected in June 1990 was non-chlorotic and significantly higher in Mg concentration than unfertilized foliage (1.1. vs. 0.7 g/kg, respectively). The results of this study indicate that it is important to assess the potential for initiating a nutrient deficiency due to secondary effects of sludge application in forest systems.

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110. Harrison, R.B., E.C. Turnblom, C.L. Henry, P. Leonard, R. King and R. Gonyea. 2002. Response of three young Douglas-fir plantations to forest fertilization with low rates of municipal biosolids. Journal-of-Sustainable-Forestry 14(2/3): 21-30.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Growth responses were monitored in three Pseudotsuga menziesii stands (Units 2, 11 and 13) in Washington, USA, following single low applications (17-19 t/ha) of municipal biosolids amendment. At the last measurement, in 1995, there were a total of 162 vs. 137 live trees (per 0.121 ha of 3 plots) in unit 2, 94 vs. 137 in unit 11, and 100 vs. 110 in unit 13 in control vs. biosolids-treated plots, respectively. The response ranged from 0.4 to 2.2 cm for average diameter at breast height, and -0.03 to 0.64 m for average total height. The small negative response could be due to mortality of trees or small errors in height measurements. The response in per ha values ranged from 0.8-5.2 m2/ha for basal area, 9-39 m3/ha for volume, and 3965-16 107 kg/ha for dry weight.

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111. Heilman, P. 1983. Effects of surface treatment and interplanting of shrub alder on rowth of Douglas-fir on coal spoils. Journal-of-Environmental-Quality 12(1): 109-113.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        site preparation

                        mechanical preparation

                        growth

                        tree physiology

                        soil properties

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Annual growth of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) planted on topsoiled spoils at a coal mine near Centralia, Wash., was monitored for the first 6 y after planting. Treatments were contour bedding, contour bedding plus interplanted Sitka alder (Alnus sinuata (Reg.) Rydb.), and unbedded control. The bedding significantly increased growth of Douglas-fir in all 5 y of the study. Total height growth after 5 y was 35% greater than control on the bedding only plots, and 43% greater on the bedding plus Sitka alder plots. Height growth of Douglas-fir in the mixed stand was significantly greater during the 2nd and 3rd y of the study, but after 5 yr, no significant difference was evident in total height between the mixed and pure Douglas-fir plots. Concentration of N in Douglas-fir foliage was significantly increased by bedding in the fifth but not in the fourth year. Interplanting with Sitka alder had no significant effect on N in Douglas-fir foliage. The top 0.3 m of soil in the ridged portion of the bedded area contained significantly less moisture over a summer than did the top 0.3 m of the unbedded soil. At deeper depths, however, soil moisture was not significantly affected by bedding. Wind damage caused by a severe storm that occurred after 5 y was very much greater on the unbedded plots (49% wind-thrown vs. 9 to 15% wind-thrown on the bedded plots) despite the smaller size of the trees on unbedded plots.

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112. Helgerson, O.T. 1985. Survival and growth of planted Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) on a hot, dry site in southwest Oregon. Tree-Planters' Notes 36(4): 3-6.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        planting operations

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: One-yr-old containerized seedlings and 2-yr-old bare rooted seedlings of both species were planted in Feb. 1982 on a W.-facing 35% slope on Tin Pan Peak. The site receives <760 mm of precipitation annually. Weeds were controlled with herbicides applied before and after planting. Survival after 2 yr averaged 94% for all stock types; survival of bare rooted seedlings (98-99%) was significantly better than that of containerized seedlings (88-92%). Relative vol. growth was greater for pine than Douglas fir. After 2 yr, the 2+0 bare rooted pines were significantly larger than the 2+0 Douglas firs, despite a smaller starting size.

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113. Helgerson, O.T. 1990a. Effects of alternate types of microsite shade on survival of planted Douglas-fir in southwest Oregon. New-Forests 3(4): 327-332.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Five-yr survival of 2+0 bare root Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings was increased by 3 types of shading: cardboard shadecards placed S. or E. of seedlings; and bottomless styrofoam cups inverted around seedling base, on 2 S.-facing sites. On the drier site, seedlings survived well without shading (89% unshaded, 98% shaded), but on the wetter site, where seedlings were more stressed, shading was more beneficial (62% unshaded, 89% shaded). Shading did not affect growth. Seedlings grew more in 5 yr on the drier than the wetter site, possibly because of better handling and planting practices, less browsing by deer, and better weed control.

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114. Helgerson, O.T. 1990b. Response of underplanted Douglas-fir to herbicide injection of sclerophyll hardwoods in southwest Oregon. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 5(3): 86-89.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        release treatments

                        chemical release

                        stand conditions

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Low-value broadleaf sclerophyll forests in SW Oregon, typically composed of tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii) and chinkapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla), may be converted to commercially valuable Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) by underplanting. Results are given of studies of container-grown plug and nursery-grown bareroot fir seedlings planted out in March 1983 on plots in which all broadleaf stems had been previously (September 1981) injected with triclopyr amine. Although 60% broadleaf cover was killed by injection, 7 years later ground cover was significantly greater on these treated plots because of sprouting. Seedlings planted beneath treated broadleaf trees experienced greater daytime, but less predawn, moisture stress; plugs survived better than bareroots; and survival of seedlings on treated plots was not significantly better until 2 years after planting. Herbicide injection also resulted in increased height, diameter and volume growth rates of Douglas fir seedlings, and is recommended for the establishment of a conifer stand.

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115. Helgerson, O.T., D.H. McNabb and S.D. Hobbs. 1991. Survival and growth of Douglas-fir seedlings after prescribed burning of a brushfield in southwest Oregon. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 6(3): 55-59.

Keywords:      site preparation

                        prescribed fire

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Five years after planting, survival of 2-0 bare root Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings was high on both burned and unburned plots (89 and 87%, respectively), but seedling stem height, diameter, and volume were greater in burned than in unburned plots.

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116. Helgerson, O.T., S.D. Tesch, S.D. Hobbs and D.H. McNabb. 1989. Survival and growth of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir stocktypes on a dry low-elevation site in southwest Oregon. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 4(4): 124-128.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        planting operations

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Two stocktypes (1+0 container-grown plugs and 2+0 nursery-grown bareroots) of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were planted on a hot, droughty, low-altitude site near Medford, Oregon, which had burned in 1981. The main objective was to assess the potential for reforesting this type of site. After 5 growing seasons, bare rooted stock survived (98%) significantly better than plugs (89%); survival did not differ significantly by species. Douglas fir was taller than pine, pine was larger in diam., and the 2 species had approximately equal stem volumes. Bare rooted stock was consistently larger than plugs. Results show that these species and stocktypes can provide good reforestation after 5 yr on this type of site when seedlings are of good quality, are planted properly, and are given good weed control.

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117. Helgerson, O.T., S.D. Tesch, S.D. Hobbs and D.H. McNabb. 1992. Effects of stocktype, shading, and species on reforestation of a droughty site in southwest Oregon. Northwest-Science 66(2): 57-61.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        planting operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: On hot, dry sites, shading may differentially increase survival of planted Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) according to seedling size, and Douglas fir may differ from ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in early survival and growth. The survival and growth of Douglas fir seedlings (1+0 container-grown plugs and 2+0 bare-rooted seedlings, unshaded or shaded with cardboard shadecards at planting) and unshaded 2+0 bare-rooted ponderosa pine were compared on a droughty south facing clear felling in Oregon. The site was clear felled and burned in 1982 and the seedlings were planted in 1983. Shading did not significantly increase survival of plugs, possibly because of a wetter than normal first summer, nor did shading affect growth of either Douglas fir stocktype 5 yr after planting. Bare-rooted Douglas fir remained significantly larger than plugs, but relative growth rates for the initially smaller plugs were significantly greater for diameter and volume. Survival and growth of ponderosa pine tended to be better than those of Douglas fir. It was concluded that both species appeared to be suitable for reforestation after clear felling on sites subject to drought.

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118. Henry, C.L. 1987. Growth response, mortality, and foliar nitrogen concentrations of four tree species treated with pulp and paper and municipal sludges. In The-forest-alternative-for-treatment-and-utilization-of-municipal-and-industrial-wastes. Eds. Cole, D.W., C.L. Henry, and W.L. Nutter. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington, USA. pp. 258-265.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        soil properties

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Four nursery beds at the University of Washington Charles Lathrop Pack Demonstration Forest were each divided into plots that received 8 sludge treatments before being planted with seedlings of Douglas fir, Abies procera or Pinus monticola, or cuttings of Populus deltoides X P. trichocarpa. Each sludge and the unamended soil were analysed for total solids, total C, P and K, total N and NH4-N. Ht. and diam. were measured after planting in April 1984 and again in Feb. 1985. N was determined in foliage sampled during Oct. (Populus) or Feb. (other species). Addition of pulp and paper sludge alone and combined with municipal sludge provided predictable growth responses when compared with the C : N ratio of each treatment. Av. response was positive when the C : N ratio was more favourable than that of untreated soil, but av. response was negative when soil was treated with primary pulp and paper sludge with a very high C : N ratio. Treatments that produced the greatest growth also increased seedling mortality.

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119. Henry, C.L., D.W. Cole, T.M. Hinckley and R.B. Harrison. 1993. The use of municipal and pulp and paper sludges to increase production in forestry. Journal-of-Sustainable-Forestry 1(3): 41-55.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        fertilization

                        thinning

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        soil properties

Abstract: Because of their high nutritional content and soil conditioning properties, municipal and pulp and paper (P&P) sludges (biosolids) can serve as soil amendments for nutritionally deprived or organically poor soils on forest sites. Studies conducted over the past 20 years at an experimental forest site in Western Washington, USA, have largely confirmed the potential of biosolids to increase the productivity of many forest lands. These studies clearly demonstrated that application of biosolids at environmentally acceptable rates will result in growth responses for both young seedlings as well as established stands. Municipal biosolids have been applied to a number of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands. Young stands treated with 47 t/ha showed an average of 72, 14 and 2% height responses for Site Class IV, III and II, respectively, over a 10 year period. Thinned versus unthinned 55-year-old Douglas fir treated with 142 dry t/ha averaged 43 and 48%, respectively, for the 12 year period greater than controls. Average growth responses of 65 and 40% occurred in the 65-year-old stand for the Site Class IV and II, respectively, from a 47 dry t/ha application. Growth response resulting from application of P&P biosolids to a number of tree species (Douglas fir, Pinus monticola and Abies procera in nursery beds, and plots of Populus deltoides x P. trichocarpa rooted cuttings) has also been excellent. When properly applied, biosolids can provide an excellent alternative to chemical fertilizers as a means of enhancing forest production. Growth response is typically greater and lasts longer when compared with chemical fertilizers.

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120. Hessburg, P.F., D.J. Goheen and H. Koester. 2001. Association of black stain root disease with roads, skid trails, and precommercial thinning in Southwest Oregon. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 16(3): 127-135.

Keywords:      thinning

                        precommercial thinning

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The incidence and severity of black stain root disease (BSRD), caused by Leptographium wageneri, were evaluated in a two-stage sample of 500 precommercial-aged Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations on 5 Resource Areas of the Medford District, Bureau of Land Management in Oregon, USA. Black stain was widely distributed throughout the western half of the District. Nearly 19% of the susceptible-aged (10- to 30-year-old) plantations were infected with black stain, but mortality losses were low. In both the extensive and intensive surveys, BSRD was more often distributed in precommercially thinned than unthinned plantations. Black stain occurred with significantly greater frequency adjacent to roads and major skid trails than in the main body of plantations. Roadside strips displayed significantly more injured trees and recent soil disturbance than the main body of plantations. BSRD incidence was high in comparison with other root diseases, but there was minimal impact to precommercial stand management. Low disease severity is somewhat unique among managed forests within this area of known high BSRD hazard. The lack of widespread damage from BSRD was associated with a lack of extensive tractor yarding and an apparent lack of precommercial thinning. Forest managers within high BSRD hazard areas can maintain low mortality levels by minimizing site disturbance and tree injury associated with timber harvesting, road building, and road maintenance activities and by timing precommercial thinning to avoid vector insect emergence and flight periods. Increased disturbance and injury to precommercial-aged stands will likely result in increased disease.

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121. Hildebrand, D.M., J.K. Stone, R.L. James and S.J. Frankel. 2004. Alternatives to preplant soil fumigation for Western forest nurseries. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report PNW-GTR-608. ii + 27 p.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Field trials were conducted at six bare-root forest tree (Pinus ponderosa, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus contorta and Abies magnifica var. shastensis) nurseries in the Western United States: Bend Pine Nursery in Bend and J. Herbert Stone Nursery in Central Point (Oregon), Coeur d'Alene Nursery and Lucky Peak Nursery in Idaho, and Humboldt Nursery near McKinleyville and Placerville Nursery near Camino (California). These field experiments compared cultural treatments including timing and depth of sowing; bare fallow (with and without periodic tilling); organic amendments including sawdust, composts, and cover crops; mulches including pine needles, sawdust, and rice straw; and fumigation with methyl bromide/chloropicrin or dazomet. Measured effects included population levels of potential soil-borne pathogens (species of Fusarium and Pythium), disease incidence, seedbed density, and sizes of conifer seedlings. Several non-fumigation treatments resulted in production of seedlings with densities and sizes similar to or better than those produced in beds treated with chemical fumigation. Results varied within the nurseries depending on conifer species, field history, and disease presence. Beneficial cultural practices included: (1) incorporation of slowly decomposing organic soil amendments, e.g., aged sawdust with additional nitrogen provided later to seedlings; (2) bare fallowing with periodic tilling, and bare fallowing without periodic tilling plus supplemental weed control; and (3) sowing of conifer seed earlier and more shallow than sown conventionally, and covering seed with a nonsoil mulch such as aged sawdust or hydromulch.

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122. Hobbs, S.D. 1981. Stocktype selection and planting techniques for Douglas-fir on skeletal soils in southwest Oregon. In Reforestation of skeletal soils: proceedings of a workshop, Medford, OR, USA, November 17-19, 1981. Eds. S.D. Hobbs and O.T. Helgerson. pp. 92-96.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Stocktype selection and planting techniques for Douglas-fir can have a significant impact on seedling survival and growth on droughty skeletal soils in southwest Oregon. In these environments important seedling characteristics are stock quality, shoot-root ratio, root morphology, and caliper. Planting and special ameliorative techniques for sites with skeletal soils are discussed.

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123. Hobbs, S.D., S.G. Stafford and R.L. Slagle. 1987. Undercutting conifer seedlings: effect on morphology and field performance on droughty sites. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 17(1): 40-46.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree morphology

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: One-yr-old barerooted Douglas fir and ponderosa pine seedlings in an Oregon nursery were subjected during Feb.-June 1980 to 5 undercutting treatments that varied by number and depth of cuts and seedling phenology at time of treatment. Eight morphological variables were measured in Jan. 1981 before planting the seedlings at 2 sites in Oregon. Seedling survival and growth was recorded annually for 4 yr. All treatments significantly reduced shoot growth in the nursery, but changes in root system morphology depended on treatment severity and species. Treatment effects were generally more pronounced in ponderosa pine than in Douglas fir. Discriminant analysis showed that seedlings responded similarly in all undercutting treatments relative to control seedlings that were not undercut. No effects of undercutting were apparent after 4 yr in the field.

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124. Hobbs, S.D. and K.A. Wearstler, Jr. 1983. Performance of three Douglas-fir stocktypes on a skeletal soil. Tree-Planters' Notes 34(3): 11-14.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Plug-1 bare rooted seedlings, initially grown in containers and transplanted to a nursery for 1 yr, 2-0 bare rooted seedlings and 1-0 plug stock were planted on a steep, severe site in the Siskiyon Mts., SW Oregon, in 1980. Height and diameter were recorded after planting and in the autumn in 1980 and 1981. Survival was 91% for 1-0 plug seedlings, 87% for plug-1 seedlings and 56% for 2-0 bare rooted stock. There were n.s.d. in height and diameter growth.

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125. Humphreys, N. 1995. Douglas-fir beetle in British Columbia. In Forest-Pest-Leaflet 14. Pacific-Forestry-Centre,-Canadian-Forest-Service.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Notes are provided on the recognition, detection, biology, injuriousness and control of the scolytid Dendroctonus pseudotsugae on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) (and occasionally western larch (Larix occidentalis)) in British Columbia. The damage caused is described under the headings gallery system; effect on the tree; host susceptibility and attack pattern; association with root disease (including Armillaria ostoyae, Phaeolus schweinitzii and Phellinus weirii); and defoliation (by Choristoneura occidentalis and Orgyia pseudotsugata). Control of D. pseudotsugae is discussed under the headings preventive measures (including log and slash disposal, general logging practices), remedial measures (which include the use of trap trees and pheromones) and brood destruction (by burning and similar measures).

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126. Hunt, J.A. 1995. Commercial thinning a coastal second-growth forest with a Timberjack cut-to-length system. Forest-Engineering-Research-Institute-of-Canada FERIC TN-235. 14p.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        economics

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In the summer of 1994, after 2 years operation, FERIC monitored a thinning operation of second-growth forest dominated by Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] near Cowichan Lake, Vancouver Island, to determine productivities, costs and impacts to sites and residual stands. The thinning treatment was carried out with a Timberjack 1270 harvester and a Timberjack 910 forwarder.

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127. Jacobs, D.F., R. Rose, D.L. Haase and P.D. Morgan. 2003b. Influence of nursery soil amendments on water relations, root architectural development, and field performance of Douglas-fir transplants. New-Forests 26(3): 263-277.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        fertilization

                        tree physiology

                        tree morphology

                        growth

                        carbon allocation

                        soil properties

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: This experiment evaluated the influence of manure, peat, and vermiculite incorporated at low and high rates (0.0118 and 0.0236 m3/m2) and under two soil moisture regimes on Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) seedling (1+0 for 1+1) xylem water potential ( Phi xylem), whole-plant growth, root architectural development, and subsequent field performance under fertilized and non-fertilized conditions. Trends in soil moisture retention were observed (high manure > high peat > control) but there were no differences in Phi xylem. Root length in the wetter soil moisture experiment was initially (three months) greatest for seedlings in high vermiculite and least in high manure but there were no differences among treatments at lifting (eight months). Mean height was greatest for seedlings grown in vermiculite and peat (wetter nursery experiment) after two field seasons. Field fertilization (35 g/seedling) with controlled-release fertilizer in the planting hole stimulated height growth initially, but decreased height and diameter growth during the second growing season. Dramatic improvements associated with the use of nursery soil amendments were not realized, but the failure to identify negative effects, a potential reduction in disease incidence, and improvement of nursery soil physical and chemical properties may justify their use.

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128. Jaindl, R.G. and S.H. Sharrow. 1988. Oak/Douglas-fir/sheep: a three-crop silvopastoral system. Agroforestry-Systems 6(2): 147-152.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        release treatments

                        manual release

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: A small scale agroforestry study started in 1952 was revisited in 1985 to evaluate the long-term influence of site preparation and grazing on tree growth and survival in a system with Douglas fir, white oak (Quercus garryana) and sheep. In 1952-53, 2-yr-old Douglas fir seedlings were planted at the rate of 2500 trees/ha under 3 levels of site preparation: (1) no treatment; (2) oak thinned by 50%; and (3) oak clear felled. From 1954 to 1960, yearling ewes grazed half of each of the 3 thinning treatments for 3-4 wk each spring. The conifers were undisturbed since grazing was discontinued in 1960. Survival of planted conifers averaged 64% in 1985 and did not vary among either site preparation or grazing treatments. From 1964 to 1985, trees on the thinned and clear felled plantations grew an av. ht. of 1060 and 990 cm, respectively, compared with 900 cm on the unthinned plantation. D.b.h. averaged 3.8 and 5.6 cm greater on thinned or clear felled plantations, respectively, than on the unthinned control by 1985. Conifers on grazed plantations had increased ht. and d.b.h. growth during the first 12 yr of plantation life, averaging 63 cm taller and 0.7 cm greater in d.b.h. than the ungrazed plots by 1964. By 1985 the difference in ht. (122 cm) and d.b.h. (1.0 cm) between grazed and ungrazed plantations was not statistically significant. These data suggest that although site preparation can positively influence conifer growth, total clear felling is no better than thinning oaks. Furthermore, proper grazing can increase ht. and d.b.h. growth of the conifers during and immediately after the grazing years.

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129. Johnson, G.R. 2002. Genetic variation in tolerance of Douglas fir to Swiss needle cast as assessed by symptom expression. Silvae-Genetica 51(2/3): 80-86.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

                        genetic relationships

Abstract: The incidence of Swiss needle cast (caused by Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) has increased significantly in recent years on the Oregon coast. Genetic variation in symptoms of disease infection, as measured by foliage traits, was assessed in two series of progeny trials to determine whether these "crown health" indicators were under genetic control and correlated with tolerance (tolerance being continued growth in the presence of high disease pressure). Foliage traits generally had lower heritabilities than growth traits and were usually correlated with diameter growth. Foliage traits of crown density and colour appeared to be reasonable indicators of disease tolerance. In the absence of basal area data, assessing crown density and colour can help screen for families that show tolerance to the disease.

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130. Joseph, G. and R.G. Kelsey. 1999. Growth of Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine seedlings with foliar applications of methanol and ethanol. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 14(4): 183-185.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        growth

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Ethanol and methanol have been reported to enhance the growth and development of several agricultural and horticultural species. To test whether methanol or ethanol stimulated growth of coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) or ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)in the nursery, seedlings were sprayed with concentrations of 1 to 10% (v/v) on the foliage twice a week for 13 wk during the growing season. Foliar applications of methanol and ethanol neither significantly stimulated nor inhibited growth, and signs of damage at these concentrations were lacking.

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131. Kamm, J.A., P.D. Morgan, D.L. Overhulser, L.M. McDonough, M. Triebwasser and L.N. Kline. 1983. Management practices for cranberry girdler (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Douglas-fir nursery stock. Journal-of-Economic-Entomology 76(4): 923-926.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Chrysoteuchia topiaria (Zell.), a known pest of grasses and cranberries, was shown in field-plot studies in Oregon and Washington State in 1980-81 to be a pest of seedlings of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) grown in nurseries. The pyralid was capable of reproduction in nursery beds where feeding larvae partially or completely girdled the taproot of seedlings. Pheromone-trap collections indicated that grasslands bordering nurseries and not nursery beds were the primary source of adults. In addition to Douglas fir, several species of true fir were damaged by larvae, but no feeding damage was observed on pine, cedar, hemlock or spruce. Insecticides applied to control adults and larvae effectively reduced the incidence of damage. It was suggested that, when possible, a pest management programme should include grasslands bordering the nursery, control of weeds and the use of a non-food-plant cover crop in the nursery.

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132. Kastner, W.W., Jr., S.M. Dutton and D.M. Roche. 2001. Effects of Swiss needle cast on three Douglas-fir seed sources on a low-elevation site in the northern Oregon Coast Range: results after five growing seasons. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 16(1): 31-34.

Keywords:      genetic tree improvement

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) seedlings grown from three seed sources were evaluated for 5 years for their relative tolerance to Swiss needle cast (caused by the ascomycete Phaeoxryptopus gaeumannii), on a high-disease-hazard site located approximately 3 miles northeast of Tillamook, Oregon, USA. The seed sources were: (1) seed collected from trees showing an apparent degree of tolerance to Swiss needle cast in natural stands in the coastal fog belt, (2) open-pollinated seed orchard seed collected from random single-pair crosses of parent trees in natural stands outside of the coastal fog belt, but west of the Oregon Coast Range summit, whose progeny demonstrated an apparent degree of disease tolerance in coastal Douglas-fir progeny test sites, and (3) standard reforestation seed purchased from a commercial vendor. There were no significant differences among seed sources in basal diameter and total height for all five growing seasons. Needle retention varied among seed sources over the 5-year period, but current-year needle retention did not vary significantly after the fifth growing season, and retention of 1- and 2-year-old needles was relatively low for all seed sources. The intense disease pressure on this site may have overwhelmed expression of disease tolerance among seed sources. We do not recommend planting Douglas-fir on such high-hazard sites.

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133. Kelpsas, B.R. 1987. Seasonal impacts of fluroxypyr and triclopyr on conifers and shrubs. Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science (Vol.40): 128-129.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Release of Pseudotsuga menziesii from Rubus spectabilis and Alnus rubra in a plantation in the Pacific Northwest could be achieved by 1.12 kg fluroxypyr/ha applied in May at the early foliar stage without appreciable long-term injury. P. menziesii tolerated 1.12 kg triclopyr/ha but was severely damaged by 1.12 kg and 2.24 kg fluroxypyr when applied during the dormant season in Mar. Both fluroxypyr and triclopyr were more effective against A. rubra than R. spectabilis. Control of R. spectabilis with triclopyr was marginal.

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134. Ketchum, J.S., R. Rose and B. Kelpsas. 2000. Comparison of adjuvants used in fall-release herbicide mixtures for forest site preparation. Tree-Planters' Notes 49(3): 66-71.

Keywords:      site preparation

                        chemical preparation

                        release treatments

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Tank mixes of the herbicides imazapyr and glyphosate were applied at 3 rates with 3 adjuvants (LI-700Reg., Nu-Film-IRReg., Silwet L-77Reg.) over California hazelnut (Corylus cornuta var. californica), vine maple (Acer circinatum), and brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum var. lanuginosum) on a 2-year-old clearcut of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in Oregon. The herbicide 2,4-D was applied at 3 rates with 2 adjuvants (HerbimaxReg., Nu-Film-IR) over greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula) on a 4-year-old Douglas fir clearcut in Oregon. Tank mixes of imazapyr and glyphosate with LI-700 or Nu-Film-IR were sprayed at 3 rates over 1-year-old seedlings of Douglas fir on 2 sites in Oregon. The herbicide rate strongly influenced the percentage of foliage injured and percentage of stems killed for all herbicide treatments. The adjuvants evaluated did not influence efficacy of herbicide applications on California hazelnut, vine maple, or brackenfern. Herbimax increased visual foliar damage resulting from 2,4-D application on greenleaf manzanita. Douglas fir foliage was damaged by the higher herbicide rates; the damage was greater from Nu-Film-IR than from LI-700.

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135. Kimball, B.A., D.L. Nolte, D.L. Griffin, S.M. Dutton and S. Ferguson. 1998a. Impacts of live canopy pruning on the chemical constituents of Douglas-fir vascular tissues: implications for black bear tree selection. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 109(1/3): 51-56.

Keywords:      pruning

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: The impact of live canopy pruning (removal of all live and dead whorls between the ground and 5 m height, resulting in removal of ~40% of the live canopy) on the carbohydrate and terpene content of vascular tissue was investigated in the lower bole of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) on 4 sites in NW Oregon. Cambial zone vascular tissue samples were collected from pruned and unpruned trees in the lower bole and within the live canopy. Current year's radial growth was estimated from the mass of vascular tissue removed from the 800 cmsuperscript 2 area sampled from each tree. Chemical analyses were conducted to determine the concentration of carbohydrates and terpenes in the samples. Results indicated that 2 yr following treatment, pruning resulted in reduced growth and decreased carbohydrate content of the vascular tissue. Pruning had no effect on the terpene concentration of the vascular tissue. The impact of pruning on the foraging selection of black bears (Ursus americanus) was evaluated by surveying bear damaged trees in a 50 acre stand of pruned and unpruned timber. Odds ratios indicate that black bears were 4 times more likely to forage unpruned than pruned Douglas fir. Tree selection may be explained in part by the higher availability of carbohydrates in the unpruned tree with respect to the pruned tree.

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136. Kimball, B.A., E.C. Turnblom, D.L. Nolte, D.L. Griffin and R.M. Engeman. 1998b. Effects of thinning and nitrogen fertilization on sugars and terpenes in Douglas-fir vascular tissues: implications for black bear foraging. Forest-Science 44(4): 599-602.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        thinning

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Analyses of vascular tissue samples from Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) trees collected in test plots in W. Washington and NW Oregon, USA, showed that both thinning and N fertilizer application caused the sugar concentration of vascular tissues in the lower bole to increase. However, these treatments had no effect on the concentrations of hydrocarbon monoterpenes, oxygenated monoterpenes or sesquiterpenes. These results may explain the observations that black bears (Ursus americanus) prefer to forage in thinned and fertilized stands, as the bears maximize sugar intake and minimize terpene intake while foraging.

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137. King, J.E., D.D. Marshall and J.F. Bell. 2002. Levels-of-growing-stock cooperative study in Douglas-fir: report no. 17 - the Skykomish study, 1961-93; the Clemons study, 1963-94. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station, USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PNW-RP-548. vii + 120 p.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        growth

                        yield

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: A study was conducted at the Skykomish Tree Farm, and at the Clemons Tree Farm, Washington, USA, to determine how the amount of growing stock in repeatedly thinned stands of Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) affects cumulative wood production, tree size and growth-growing stock ratios. Initial stands were thinned to the same level of growing stock so that all plots would have virtually the same growth potential except the unthinned controls. The Skykomish and Clemons stands were 24 and 19 years old, respectively, when the studies were started. Stand treatments were completed at ages 42 and 36, and measurements were continued to ages 56 and 50. After 32 years at Skykomish and 31 years at Clemons, the basal area per acre in the eight regimes ranged from 119-244 ft2 at Skykomish and 101-195 at Clemons. The corresponding gross yields in cubic feet per acre were 8709-13 579 at Skykomish and 6329-9072 at Clemons. Volume in thinnings were 18-53% of the gross yield. Stand treatments included four regimes with different combinations of heavy and light thinning and four regimes with constant intensities of thinning. Variable regimes were found to have consistent advantage over constant regimes. Within a given level of growing stock, the constant regimes are recommended for applications where wood production is the primary objective. A substantial increase in the yield was produced in all regimes during the post thinning holding period. Based on standing volume after the last thinning, the holding period of 4 years produced approximately 30% more volume in all regimes. Extending the period to 9 years produced approximately 70% more volume, and at 14 years, the standing volume was more than double the volume remaining after the last thinning. This extra yield enhanced by the high quality of the stands makes the length of the holding period an important factor in the scheduling of final harvest.

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138. Knowe, S.A. and W.I. Stein. 1995. Predicting the effects of site preparation and protection on development of young Douglas-fir plantations. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 25(9): 1538-1547.

Keywords:      site preparation

                        release treatments

                        tree/stand protection

                        growth

                        tree morphology

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: Diameter prediction models based on the Weibull distribution function and stand-table projection models based on changes in relative diameter were developed for 2- to 10-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations in Oregon. Both modelling approaches incorporated the effects of site preparation, animal protection, and competing vegetation. The diameter distribution approach is appropriate when information on initial diameters is not available. The stand-table projection approach may be applied when tree diameters in a plantation are measured two or more growing seasons after planting. At young ages, the stand-table approach provided more accurate representation of observed diameter distributions than the diameter distribution approach. At age 10 the two methods provided comparable diameter distributions. The equations derived for predicting survival, height growth of dominant trees, height-diameter relationships, and the development of woody vegetation over time will facilitate the study and comparison of stand structure and dynamics after various site-preparation and animal protection treatments.

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139. Koerber, T.W. and G.P. Markin. 1984. Metasystox-RReg. injections increase seed yield of Douglas-fir in California, Oregon, and Washington. In Proceedings of the cone and seed insects working party conference, Working Party S20701, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, NC. Ed. H. Yates, III. pp. 137-146.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        reproduction

Abstract: Injections of 1.5 g for each 15 cm of tree girth reduced seed damage caused by Contarinia oregonensis and Barbara colfaxiana, but not that by Megastigmus spermatrophus [M. spermotrophus]. On sites with insect populations high enough to cause substantial seed losses, treatment increased seed yield per cone by 38-162%.

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140. Krakowski, J. and Y.A. El-Kassaby. 2003. Effects of stratification and simulated aging on germination of Douglas-fir seed from a clonal seed orchard. Forest-Genetics 10(1): 65-70.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand health

                        reproduction

Abstract: Seeds from 15 Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) clones were germinated in a factorial design with two pre-treatments (unstratified and stratified) and seven simulated aging periods (0, 2, 4, 7, 10, 12 and 14 days). Simulated aging consisted of high temperature (40 degrees C) and relative humidity (100%) exposure, which simulates physiological stresses and consequent deterioration in long-term storage. Seed deteriorated as aging treatments lengthened; no germination occurred after 12 days. Germination parameters (capacity, peak value, speed, completeness) were calculated, and pre-treatment and aging effects evaluated using a mixed model analysis of variance. Germination completeness and speed were higher after two days of aging for stratified seed, whereas only peak value increased for unstratified seed. After four days aging, all parameters decreased. Two days of aging enhanced germination capacity of unstratified seed by 15%, but stratified seed was still 13% higher. Douglas-fir seed should be stratified before germination, but unstratified seed can be exposed to 40 degrees C and 100% humidity for two days to augment seedling stock during the growing season. Ex situ Douglas-fir genetic resource conservation, as well as more adequate representation of planted genotypes across the landscape, can benefit from two days of aging, which would ensure slowly-germinating genotypes are represented in the population.

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141. Lavender, D.P. and S.G. Stafford. 1985. Douglas-fir seedlings: some factors affecting chilling requirement, bud activity, and new foliage production. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 15(2): 309-312.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

                        tree phenology

Abstract: Potted 2-yr-old seedlings were exposed to a range of natural and artificial environments at the Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State University during the autumn and winter before a 9-wk period in an environment designed to permit active shoot growth. Seedling response demonstrated (i) that exposure to a period of short (9 h), mild (20 degrees C) days prepared seedlings for the beneficial effects of subsequent chilling (4.4 degrees C) temperatures and (ii) that the physiology of dormancy of Douglas-fir seedlings may be adversely affected by environments that differ markedly from those prevailing in the Pacific Northwest during the autumn.

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142. Lee, Y.J. and H.J. Barclay. 1985. Ten-year growth response of a 25-year-old and a 55-year-old Douglas-fir stand to thinning and urea fertilization. Pacific-Forestry-Centre, Canadian-Forest-Service Information-Report BC-X-260. 14 p.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        thinning

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: In stands of medium site quality in British Columbia, 4 rates of nitrogen (0, 112, 224, and 336 k/ha of N), in the form of urea (46% N), were tested at two thinning intensities. Fertilizer was applied in spring or fall, but the season of application had little effect on growth. Thinning almost doubled diam. growth by 10 yr but affected only net vol. growth; gross vol. was only minimally affected by thinning. Fertilization in the 25-yr-old stand increased mean d.b.h. growth significantly in the second and third yr and increased vol. growth significantly in the first 3 yr, but the effect diminished thereafter. Different rates of fertilizer application on the 55-yr-old stand gave inconsistent results. Combined thinning and fertilizer treatment had the greatest growth response. In both stands the overall effect of 336 kg/ha N was to increase vol. growth by about 20%. Thinning significantly decreased mortality, but the effect of fertilizer was negligible. Combined treatment had the greatest effect on the advancement of trees by the number of d.b.h. classes. The effect of thinning and fertilizing on the cumulative growth will probably continue after 10 yr until crowding sets in.

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143. Leininger, W.C. and S.H. Sharrow. 1987. Seasonal diets of herded sheep grazing Douglas-fir plantations. Journal-of-Range-Management 40(6): 551-555.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: The seasonal diets of herded sheep grazing cutover Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forests in the Coast Range of Oregon were studied during 1981 and 1982. Both 4- to 6-year-old non-grass-seeded and 2-year-old grass-seeded plantations were included. Sheep grazing was monitored in spring, summer and late summer. Forage on offer ranged from 764 to 2459 kg/ha. Vegetational composition of sheep diets varied by year, season and plantation age class. Averaged over the 2 years of grazing, graminoids and forbs were nearly equal, at about 40% each, in sheep diets in older plantations. In contrast, diets of sheep in young grass-seeded plantations averaged 70% graminoids and only 16% forbs. Ferns were a minor component (<2%) of sheep diets in both plantation age classes. Browse averaged 15 and 12% of sheep diets in old and young plantations, respectively. Douglas-fir was most palatable to sheep in spring soon after bud break. It was generally avoided, however, and never comprised more than 3% of sheep diets. Results suggest that sheep can be most effectively used for biological control of unwanted brush species during summer and late summer when differences in relative preference indices for target brush species and Douglas-fir are greatest.

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144. Leininger, W.C. and S.H. Sharrow. 1989. Seasonal browsing of Douglas fir seedlings by sheep. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 4(3): 73-76.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Controlled sheep grazing for the biological control of unwanted vegetation in regenerating conifer plantations is an alternative to herbicide application. Efficient use of livestock to control brush and herbaceous species requires understanding of potential damage to the tree crop by the grazing animal. Sheep browsing (700 Columbia ewes May-September 1981, 900 Columbia yearling ewes May-September 1982) and mechanical damage to 2- to 6-yr-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings were evaluated in the Coast Range of Oregon: browsing was greatest in May, soon after bud break; little browsing occurred during July and August. Percentage of study trees with browsed terminal shoots decreased as seedling height increased above 90 cm. Less than 3% of the study trees were trampled or received other mechanical damage by sheep. The data suggest that Douglas fir forests can be grazed by sheep with little or no damage to conifer regeneration, except in younger plantations in spring.

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145. Lindsey, G.D. and J. Evans. 1983. Evaluation of zinc phosphide for control of pocket gophers on Christmas tree plantations. Tree-Planters' Notes 34(2): 11-14.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

Abstract: In laboratory tests, pocket gophers (Thomomys and Geomys spp.) were offered 5 kinds of treated bait, including 1% Zn phosphide in oats, 0.75% Zn phosphide in fresh carrots, and 0.5% strychnine in rolled oats (3 mixtures). The carrot bait was found to be as effective for killing gophers as the strychnine mixtures. Plots in a 4-yr-old Pseudotsuga menziesii and Pinus monticola plantation in Washington, with occupied T. mazama burrows, were baited with the carrot or one of the strychnine mixtures in Nov. 1981. Both baits produced only a 63% reduction in gopher activity, possibly because of the availability of abundant alternative vegetative food. It was estimated that tree mortality due to root pruning by gophers was >10% on this site. It is recommended that the carrot/Zn sulphide bait be registered for special local needs where safety to wildlife and domestic animals is important.

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146. Litvak, M.E., J.V.H. Constable and R.K. Monson. 2002. Supply and demand processes as controls over needle monoterpene synthesis and concentration in Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco]. Oecologia 132(3): 382-391.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        nursery fertilization

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: We measured the relative control that resource availability (as a supply-side control) and wounding (as a demand-side control) exert on patterns of monoterpene synthesis and concentration in Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] needles. While supply-side controls should alter monoterpene production due to changes in the availability of substrate (carbohydrates), demand-side controls alter the need for a defensive product. We examined these relationships by measuring constitutive (preformed) and wound-induced rates of monoterpene synthesis and pool sizes in trees grown under ambient and elevated (ambient +200 micro mol mol-1) CO2, ambient and elevated (ambient +4 degrees C) temperature, and in trees grown under four levels of nitrogen fertilization (0, 50, 100 and 200 micro g g-1 N by weight). Monoterpene pool size decreased at elevated CO2, increased at elevated temperature and did not change in response to nitrogen fertilization. Overall, we did not find that foliar nitrogen, carbon balance, or rate of monoterpene synthesis alone were consistent predictors of monoterpene concentration in current-year Douglas fir needles. In addition, despite a wound-induced decrease in monoterpene pool size, we found no evidence for induction of monoterpene synthesis in response to wounding. The influence of either resource availability or wounding on rates of monoterpene synthesis or accumulation cannot be explained by traditional supply-side or demand-side controls. We conclude that monoterpene synthesis in first-year Douglas fir needles is controlled by fairly conservative genetic mechanisms and is influenced more by past selection than by current resource state.

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147. Livingston, N.J. and T.A. Black. 1987b. Water stress and survival of three species of conifer seedlings planted on a high elevation south-facing clear-cut. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 17(9): 1115-1123.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Container-grown seedlings (1+0) of Douglas fir, western hemlock and Abies amabilis were planted in spring 1981 and 1982 at 1150 m alt. on a 30 degrees S.-facing slope on Mt. Arrowsmith, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Treatments at planting included inclining seedlings to the SW (thus shading the root collar with the foliage) and provision of shade cards and/or irrigation. Control seedlings received no treatment. Seasonal and diurnal courses of twig xylem water potential, turgor potential and osmotic potential were measured and the relation between transpiration and soil water potential was determined. Seedling survival was recorded in April 1982-84. Douglas fir seedlings showed a high degree of drought tolerance by considerable osmotic adjustment that enabled seedlings to maintain turgor throughout the growing season. Douglas fir seedlings thus survived severe drought and maintained daily transpiration rates that were never less than 50% of those of irrigated seedlings. Transpiration rates were reduced, however, on days of high vapour pressure deficits because of stomatal closure. Western hemlock and, especially, A amabilis lacked both stress avoidance and stress tolerance mechanisms and consequently suffered high mortality. In April 1984, untreated Douglas fir seedlings had 72-82% survival, while treated seedlings had 81-95% survival. Shade cards and/or irrigation increased survival of western hemlock and A. amabilis, but not to the rates shown by Douglas fir.

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148. Lopushinsky, W. 1986. Effect of jellyrolling and acclimatization on survival and height growth of conifer seedlings. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Note PNW-RN-438. 14 p.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Jellyrolling is a preplanting treatment that involves dipping roots of seedlings in a vermiculite/water slurry and wrapping the roots in wet burlap to form a roll. Studies were made at 14 sites in Oregon and Washington during 1984 using bare root seedlings of Pinus ponderosa, P. contorta or Pseudotsuga menziesii. Results showed that there was no advantage in survival, ht. growth or moisture stress from jellyrolling or acclimatizing (storage in a tent or shed at ambient temp. for 24 h before planting) seedlings rather than dipping roots in a peat moss/water slurry at the planting site.

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149. Maher, T.F. 1990. Damage appraisal and pheromone trapping studies for the black army cutworm in British Columbia. B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report 117. iv + 41 p.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

Abstract: Actebia fennica [Dissimactebia fennica] have damaged Picea spp., Pinus contorta, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix occidentalis and Populus tremuloides in recently planted stands in British Columbia.

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150. Manter, D.K. and K.L. Kavanagh. 2003. Stomatal regulation in Douglas fir following a fungal-mediated chronic reduction in leaf area. Trees: Structure and Function 17(6): 485-491.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Pathogens can cause chronic premature needle abscission in coniferous species. To assess the potential impacts on tree productivity, stomatal regulation was investigated in Douglas fir with chronic stomatal occlusion and defoliation from varying levels of the Swiss needle cast (SNC) fungus, Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii. Levels of SNC disease and subsequent defoliation were manipulated by choosing six sites with varying levels of disease and by foliar applications of fungicides on six trees per site. Diurnal measurements of leaf water potential ( Psi leaf), stomatal conductance (gs) and vapor pressure deficit (D) were made on six fungicide treated and six control trees per site. In addition, leaf specific hydraulic conductance was calculated on a single branch (KL_B) from three trees per treatment per site. Stomatal conductance at D=1 kPa (gsref) was negatively correlated with fungal colonization (number of fruiting bodies present in needle stomata) and positively correlated with KL_B. Despite reduced needle retention in diseased trees, KL declined due to a reduction in sapwood area and permeability (i.e., increasing presence of latewood in functional sapwood). In general, stomatal sensitivity to D for all foliage was consistent with stomatal regulation based on a simple hydraulic model [gs=KL( Psi soil- Psi leaf)/D], which assumes strict stomatal regulation of Psi leaf. However, when fungal presence reduced maximum gs below the potential maximum supported by hydraulic architecture, stomatal sensitivity was lower than expected based on the theoretical relationship: d gs/dln D=0.6.gsref. The results indicate that losses in productivity associated with physical blockage of stomata and defoliation are compounded by additional losses in KL and a reduction in gs in remaining functional stomata.

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151. Marshall, D.D. and R.O. Curtis. 2002. Levels-of-growing-stock cooperative study in Douglas-fir: report no. 15 - Hoskins: 1963-1998. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PNW-RP-537. 80 p.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        growth

                        yield

                        tree/stand health

                        tree morphology

Abstract: The cooperative levels-of-growing-stock (LOGS) study in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) was begun to study the relations between growing stock, growth, cumulative wood production, and tree size in repeatedly thinned stands. This report summarizes results from the Hoskins installation through age 55. Growing stock has been allowed to accumulate for 19 years since the last treatment thinning was applied in this high site class II natural stand. Volume and diameter growth were strongly related to growing stock. Basal area growth-growing stock relations were considerably weaker. Differences in tree size and volume distribution were considerable. Culmination of mean annual increment has not occurred for any of the treatments, although the control has culminated for total stem cubic volume and is near culmination for merchantable cubic volume. Only small differences are seen in growth percentages between thinning treatments. Results demonstrate potential flexibility in managing Douglas-fir to reach a range of objectives.

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152. Mason, R.R. and B.E. Wickman. 1991. Integrated pest management of the Douglas-fir tussock moth. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 39(1-4): 119-130.

Keywords:      tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

                        growth

Abstract: The Douglas-fir tussock moth (Orgyia pseudotsugata) is one of the most destructive forest defoliators of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir (Abies grandis) and white fir (A. concolor) in western North America. An outline is given of current pest-management programmes used in Oregon, which emphasize the annual monitoring of insects in forests with outbreak histories to determine early changes in population numbers and to predict trends. When outbreaks develop, several environmentally safe chemical and microbial insecticides are effective in reducing larval numbers and preventing serious defoliation. Computer models predicting growth loss, tree mortality, and top-kill during outbreaks are available as aids to making management decisions. Silvicultural practices favouring seral nonhost species on high-risk sites may be the best prescription for reducing the effect of tussock moth outbreaks.

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153. McClain, K.M. and D.P. Lavender. 1988. Tissue water relations and survival of conditioned conifer seedlings during drought stress. In Proceedings: 10th North American Forest Biology Workshop, 'Physiology and genetics of reforestation', University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, July 10-22, 1988. Eds. J. Worrall, J. Loo-Dinkins and D.P. Lester. pp. 177-185.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 23-week-old seedlings were subjected to an 8-week drought stress period on two soil types (sandy clay loam and loamy sand) in protected cold frames in a nursery in Oregon in July-August 1984. Before transplanting, treatments consisting of daily or weekly irrigations, combined with 0 or 100 p.p.m. KCl, were applied to the seedlings for 6 weeks. The results showed that weekly irrigated (stress conditioned) seedlings maintained higher water potentials than daily irrigated (non-stress conditioned) seedlings. Decreases in water potential were more rapid for seedlings grown on sand than for seedlings grown on loam. By the end of the assessment period, relative water contents of Douglas fir on sand and loam were 88.3% and 91.5%, respectively, and 72.7% and 81.8%, respectively, for jack pine. Turgor pressures were maintained at higher levels in Douglas fir than in jack pine on both soil types. On sand, mortality in both species was dependent on conditioning treatment, indicating that stress conditioning enhanced seedling drought resistance during a period of rapidly increasing soil water deficit. KCl treatment was not implicated in response to drought, but increased mortality of jack pine on sandy clay loam.

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154. McDonald, P.M. and G.O. Fiddler. 1996. Development of a mixed shrub-tanoak-Douglas-fir community in a treated and untreated condition. Pacific-Southwest-Research-Station, USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PSW-RP-225. iv + 16 p.

Keywords:      release treatments

                        manual release

                        chemical release

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

                        tree morphology

                        stand conditions

                        economics

Abstract: On a medium site in northern California, a tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus)-mixed shrub community in a Douglas fir plantation was given several treatments (manual release two and three times, a combination chainsaw and cut surface herbicide (Garlon 3A [triclopyr]) treatment, two foliar herbicides (2,4-D or Garlon 4), and a tank mix of the two herbicides) to study its development in both a natural (control) and treated condition. The herbicides were each applied twice. Survival of planted Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings was recorded for 11 years and growth was quantified for 9 years after the last treatment application. In addition to Douglas fir, data are presented individually for the two most abundant species (tanoak and snowbrush, Ceanothus velutinus var. hookeri), for greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), and for the hardwood tree and shrubs combined. At the study's end in 1992, combined vegetation in the control had a mean density of 1800 plants/acre, foliar cover of 23 700 ftsuperscript 2/acre, and height of 11.2 ft. In contrast, combined tree and shrubs in the most effective treatment for controlling them (cut and spray Garlon 3A) had a mean density of 150 plants/acre, foliar cover of 150 ftsuperscript 2/acre and height of 5.9 ft at study end. Because competition for site resources was low, Douglas fir seedlings developed best in this treatment. Mean Douglas fir diameter was 4.6 inches at 12 inches above mean ground line, height averaged more than 21 ft, and mean foliar cover was 39 850 ftsuperscript 2 at the end of the study. The cost was $227 per acre.

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155. McKay, H.M. 1994. Frost hardiness and cold-storage tolerance of the root system of Picea sitchensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix kaempferi and Pinus sylvestris bare-root seedlings. Scandinavian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 9(3): 203-213.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: During the winter of 1990-91, fine roots of 2-year-old, undercut and wrenched Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix kaempferi [L. leptolepis], Pinus sylvestris, and Picea sitchensis (Alaskan, Queen Charlotte Islands and Oregon provenances) were tested using electrolyte leakage for frost hardiness and tolerance to storage at +1 degrees C for 30 and 90 days as excised roots. Pseudotsuga menziesii and Pinus sylvestris showed only minor changes in root frost hardiness with a maximum of -4 degrees C and -7 degrees C respectively. Larix leptolepis and Picea sitchensis developed much greater root frost hardiness; L. leptolepis had a maximum hardiness of -12 degrees C while Picea sitchensis (Queen Charlotte Islands) reached -13 degrees C during the winter. The root frost hardiness of Picea sitchensis increased with the provenance's latitude. There were clear species and provenance differences in the level of long-term cold-storage tolerance attained, increasing in the order Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus sylvestris and Picea sitchensis (Oregon), L. leptolepis, Picea sitchensis (Queen Charlotte Islands), and Picea sitchensis (Alaskan). In spite of highly significant correlations between root electrolyte leakage after cold-storage and frosting tests, root frost hardiness did not accurately indicate all aspects of long-term cold tolerance and has limitations as a means of determining safe cold-storage dates.Tr.

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156. McKay, H.M. and A.D. Milner. 2000. Species and seasonal variability in the sensitivity of seedling conifer roots to drying and rough handling. Forestry-Oxford 73(3): 259-270.

Keywords:      planting operations

                        tree physiology

                        tree/stand health

                        tree phenology

Abstract: The ability of the fine root system of 2-year-old bare-rooted planting stock of Picea sitchensis of Queen Charlotte Islands (British Columbia, Canada), Oregon and Alaskan (USA) provenances, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix kaempferi and Pinus sylvestris to withstand standard drying and rough handling treatments was tested at regular intervals from September 1990 until April 1991, at a nursery in NE England. Details are given of nursery treatments (sowing in spring 1989; undercutting in year 2 in June-mid-August, depending on species, and wrenching at 2-wk intervals until mid-October; and lifting at 2-wk intervals from September-November 1990 to April 1991). Electrolyte leakage was used to quantify the damage to the fine roots. Stressed seedlings had significantly greater leakage values than untreated seedlings and dried seedlings had significantly greater leakage values than roughly handled seedlings, but the responses varied with species and lifting date. After drying, leakage values increased in the order P. sitchensis (Oregon and Queen Charlotte Islands), P. sylvestris, L. kaempferi, P. sitchensis (Alaskan), P. menziesii. Leakage values after rough handling increased in the order P. sitchensis (Alaskan and Queen Charlotte islands), L. kaempferi, P. sitchensis (Oregon), P. sylvestris, P. menziesii. Leakage values were greatest in early September. During September and October there was a rapid downward trend in leakage. From December to February, leakage values decreased very slowly. In March leakage values of untreated and roughly handled seedlings increased slightly but decreased further in dried seedlings. These results indicate that great care must be taken during autumn planting to protect bare-rooted seedlings, particularly P. menziesii, from drying and to a lesser extent rough handling. Fine root leakage values following drying and rough handling had a significant linear relationship with the logarithm of the number of days required for the terminal bud to burst.

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157. McLeod, A.A., R.C. Evans and R.K. Scagel. 1993. Conversion of understocked salal sites at Woss Lake, British Columbia. B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report 194. vi + 15 p.

Keywords:      nursery operations

                        site preparation

                        mechanical preparation

                        fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        economics

Abstract: A trial comparing the effect of spot scarification and slow release NPK fertilizer application on stock types of coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) was conducted in a 25-year-old backlog site occupied by a thick carpet of salal (Gaultheria shallon) in the CWHxm2 habitat of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Bare root and container stock types were planted and treated, and mortality and growth were measured for 3 years. Despite the high fertilizer-related mortality of the bare-root stock type in the first year, the 3-year height growth performance of all treatments was better but more variable than that of the untreated seedlings. The value of site preparation and fertilizer for stimulating early growth varied by stock type. Bare-root stock did not respond strongly enough to fertilizer or site preparation to justify the cost of either of these treatments. Container stock types did not respond strongly enough to site preparation alone to justify the high cost of site preparation. The largest growth gains in the container stock types were associated with the combination of site preparation and fertilization.

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158. McNabb, D.H., K. Baker-Katz and S.D. Tesch. 1993. Machine site preparation improves seedling performance on a high-elevation site in southwest Oregon. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 8(3): 95-98.

Keywords:      site preparation

                        mechanical preparation

                        tree/stand health

                        stand conditions

                        growth

Abstract: Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings planted on areas receiving one of four site preparation treatments (scarify, scarify/till, soil removal, and soil removal/till) and on unprepared control areas were compared for 5 yr at a high-altitude, nutrient-poor site in the western Siskiyou Mountains. Fifth-year survival of seedlings was at least 85% among machine-prepared plots, compared to 42% on control plots. Cover of competing vegetation remained less than 25% during the period for all machine treatments. In contrast, vegetation cover on control plots was 30% at the time of planting and increased to nearly 75% after 5 yr. Competing vegetation clearly impeded seedling performance. The effects of unusually droughty conditions at the time of planting in 1982 were examined further by interplanting additional seedlings in the soil-removal treatment in 1985. The interplanting was followed by more normal spring precipitation, and seedlings grew better over 5 yr than those planted in 1982. The slow recovery of competing vegetation and generally poor seedling growth on all treatments during both planting years are attributed to low soil fertility.

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159. Miller, G.E. 1983a. Evaluation of the effectiveness of cold-water misting of trees in seed orchards for control of Douglas-fir cone gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). Journal-of-Economic-Entomology 76(4): 916-919.

Keywords:      seed orchard management

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        tree phenology

Abstract: The effectiveness of misting trees with cold water in delaying reproductive bud burst of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and consequently controlling Contarinia oregonensis Foote was evaluated in tests in seed orchards in British Columbia in 1978-80. The misting treatment reduced the amount of damage to the same degree as was achieved with sprays of dimethoate when a 10-day delay in seed-cone bud burst coincided with the earliest 'flowering' trees being the most heavily attacked. Gall midge damage was not reduced to an acceptable level with less than a 10-day delay or when later-flowering trees were the most heavily attacked. It was not possible to determine the likely effectiveness of cold-water misting before bud burst in a given year, because the period of bud-burst delay varied with weather and because synchrony between presence of adult midges and susceptible host-tree stage was not consistent.

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160. Miller, G.E. 1986. Damage prediction for Contarinia oregonensis Foote (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in Douglas-fir seed orchards. Canadian-Entomologist 118(12): 1297-1306.

Keywords:      seed orchard management

                        tree/stand protection

                        tree/stand health

                        reproduction

Abstract: Damage to Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in British Columbia at cone harvest by Contarinia oregonensis was positively correlated with the number of egg-infested scales per conelet in the spring. Reducing the average number of galled seeds per cone by 1.5 increased the average number of filled seeds per cone by 1.0 in insecticide trials. Optimum sample sizes for estimating average densities of egg-infested scales were calculated to be 1 conelet/tree and 150 trees/orchard. The mean crowding variable was linearly related to average density, so a sequential sampling technique relative to a critical density was developed for determining the need for control measures.

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161. Miller, M. and B. Emmingham. 2001. Can selection thinning convert even-age Douglas-fir stands to uneven-age structures? Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 16(1): 35-43.

Keywords:      thinning

                        commercial thinning

                        growth

                        yield

                        tree/stand health

                        regeneration

Abstract: Uneven-age management of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands can be used to address aesthetic, wildlife habitat, biodiversity and sustainability concerns, but there has been little long-term experience with this type of management. To develop timely information on converting even-age stands to uneven-age forests, we used retrospective stand reconstruction methods to document harvest frequency, intensity and stand structural development at four sites in western Oregon, USA. We studied stands managed by selection thinning and identified strategies for creating and managing uneven-age forests. Selection thinning benefited mid- and understorey trees and stimulated natural regeneration. Although stand growth was less than expected from low thinning, growth per unit of growing stock was similar to that in unmanaged stands. Douglas-fir often dominated natural regeneration and had satisfactory vigour at stocking levels about half that considered full stocking for even-age management, but good growth of regeneration may require even lower overstorey stocking. Shade-tolerant grand fir (Abies grandis) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), however, were more abundant at higher stocking levels. Selection thinning of young Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands can sometimes be effective in promoting viable regeneration while providing regular income and biodiversity. Because this was a retrospective study only, further, long-term testing is necessary.

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162. Miller, R.E. 1981. Response of Douglas-fir to foliar fertilization. In Proceedings: Forest Fertilization Conference, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA. Eds. S.P. Gessel, R.M. Kenady and W.A. Atkinson. pp. 62-68.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        tree/stand health

                        growth

                        economics

Abstract: This paper summarizes past research about spray application of 10 to 32 percent nitrogen solutions to seedlings and established stands of Douglas-fir. These investigations establish that Douglas-fir and associated conifers can be foliarly fertilized with concentrated nitrogen solutions at dosages of 50 to 200 pounds per acre; however, fertilization with these solutions requires more critical selection of nitrogen source, dosage, additives, and, perhaps, time of year than does fertilization with urea prill. Some burning, up to about 30 percent of the needle surface, is visually disturbing but probably has no measurable effects on growth. With low dosages and careful application, gains in cubic volume or height growth per pound of applied nitrogen were similar for both spray and prill. Yet costs per pound of applied nitrogen have been about 25 percent more for 32 percent nitrogen solutions than for prilled urea. Hence, foliar application of concentrated nitrogen solutions is currently less cost effective than conventional use of urea solids for fertilizing Douglas-fir and associated conifers.

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163. Miller, R.E., M.V. Atherton and J.E. Wilcox. 1986. Comparative effects of three nitrogen fertilizers applied in fall and spring to a 29-year-old Douglas-fir plantation. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 16(5): 910-917.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

                        tree physiology

Abstract: Stand growth and mortality were monitored for 13 yr after application of urea, ammonium nitrate or urea + ammonium sulphate (224 kg N/ha) in autumn 1967 and spring 1968 to plots in a 29-yr-old Douglas fir plantation on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The treatments and a control were replicated 3 times. Foliar analysis indicated insufficient available N before treatment and an increase in available N 1 and 2 yr after fertilization. Addition of N at this location did not have a practical effect on stand growth and the field experiment was not sufficiently sensitive to detect real differences between N sources or season of application. Suggestions are included for improving field trials.

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164. Miller, R.E., J.W. Hazard and D.C. Young. 1991. Effects of foliar spray and prill applications of nitrogen fertilizer on four mixed-conifer stands. Forest-Science 37(3): 741-754.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        growth

                        tree/stand health

Abstract: Concentrated urea-ammonium nitrate solution (32% N) and urea prill (granules; 46% N) were applied by helicopter at dosages of 56, 112, 224 and 448 kg N/ha before (5 May) and during (14 July) the 1969 growing season to four 40- to 70-year-old mixed stands of Pseudotsuga menziesii and Tsuga heterophylla near Sequim, Washington. Stand growth was measured repeatedly in the next 10 years. Helicopter application of both fertilizers was variable and therefore weakened comparisons between prill and foliar sprays and spring vs. summer applications. Applying 112 kg N/ha or more to these poor-site stands increased gross and net volume growth; volume growth was related linearly to N dosage of both prill and spray. Gains from prill apparently exceeded those from spray, but a subsampling of plots indicated that actual dosages, especially of spray, were less than target dosages. At the target dosage of 224 kg N/ha, 10-year gains in gross growth averaged 34.0 msuperscript 3/ha (30%) and 8.0 msuperscript 3/ha (7%) after prill and spray, respectively. Although fertilizer treatment accelerated tree losses, cumulative volume of dead trees was less than 15% of gross volume growth. Season of fertilization seemed to have no effect on efficiency of either prill or spray, but suspected differences between actual and target dosages may have influenced this comparison. Concentrated N solution applied at dosages up to about 224 kg N/ha caused little or no increase in foliar or tip damage. Doubling this conventional dosage and applying in the growing season, however, increased visible damage and may have reduced gains in volume growth.

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165. Miller, R.E., E.L. Obermeyer and H.W. Anderson. 1999. Comparative effects of precommercial thinning, urea fertilizer, and red alder in a site II, coast Douglas-fir plantation. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PNW-RP-513. ii + 25 p.

Keywords:      fertilization

                        thinning

                        precommercial thinning

                        growth

                        yield

                        tree/stand health

                        soil properties

Abstract: The number of red alder (Alnus rubra) trees retained with 300 Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) per acre was varied on a high-quality site in coastal Oregon. Alder densities of 0, 20, 40, and 80 per acre were tested. A fifth treatment eliminated nitrogen-fixing alder, but substituted nitrogen fertiliz