1. Adams, W.T., J. Zuo, J.Y. Shimizu, J.C. Tappeiner and J.H. Zuo.
1998. Impact of alternative regeneration methods on genetic diversity in
coastal Douglas-fir. Forest Science 44:390-396.
Keywords: planting operations
genetic relationships
Abstract: Genetic
markers (17 allozyme loci) were used to study the genetic implications of
natural and artificial regeneration following 3 regeneration methods (group
selection, shelterwood, and clearcut) in coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii var. menziesii) forests in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, USA. In
general, harvesting followed by either natural or artificial regeneration
resulted in offspring populations which were very similar to those in the
previous generation. The removal of the smallest trees to form shelterwoods
resulted in the removal of rare, presumably deleterious, alleles. Fewer alleles
per locus were observed among residual trees (2.76) and natural regeneration
(2.75) than were found in uncut (control) stands (2.86). The shelterwood regime
appeared quite compatible with gene conservation, and it was considered that it
was best to leave parent trees of a range of sizes to act as gene conservation
reserves, in order to maximize the number of alleles (regardless of current
adaptive value) in naturally regenerated offspring. Seedling stocks used for
artificial regeneration in clearcut, shelterwood, and group selection stands (7
total) had significantly greater levels of genetic
diversity, on average, than natural regenerated seedlings.
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2. Alvarez, I.F. and J.M. Trappe. 1983a. Dusting roots of Abies concolor and other conifers with
Pisolithus tinctorius spores at outplanting time proves ineffective.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 13(5): 1021-1023.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
mechanical preparation
growth
tree/stand health
mycorrhizal response
Abstract: Dusting
roots of Abies concolor, Abies magnifica var. shastensis, Pseudotsuga menziesii
and Pinus ponderosa with Pisolithus tinctorius (Pt) spores when planted out
produced no Pt mycorrhizae at the end of the first growing season. In the 3rd
yr occasional Pt mycorrhizae had formed on A. concolor. Inoculations reduced
seedling survival in some cases. High rates of spore application may have
desiccated roots of the true firs and spore amounts applied need careful
attention. Soil scarification and ripping significantly promoted growth of A.
concolor seedlings compared with scarification alone.
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3. Amaranthus, M.P., C.Y. Li and D.A.
Perry. 1990. Influence of vegetation type and madrone soil inoculum on
associative nitrogen fixation in Douglas-fir rhizospheres.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 20(3): 368-371.
Keywords: planting operations
soil properties
Abstract: In
studies in SW Oregon in 1985, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings
grown at a site cleared of whiteleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida) and an
adjacent, cleared, annual grass meadow were either inoculated with 100-120 ml
per seedling of pasteurized or unpasteurized soil from a nearby Pacific madrone
(Arbutus menziesii) stand, or left uninoculated. After one growing season,
Douglas fir seedling whole-plant soil systems were assayed for nitrogenase
activity by the acetylene reduction method. The rate of acetylene reduction in
rhizospheres of uninoculated seedlings from the manzanita site (1.40 +or- 0.44
nmol/h) was significantly greater than that of uninoculated seedlings from the
meadow site (0.67 +or- 0.15 nmol/h). Unpasteurized madrone soil increased the
rate of acetylene reduction by >500% for inoculated seedlings grown on the
manzanita site, but decreased it by 80% for those grown on the meadow site. The
influence of madrone soil was apparently biotic: pasteurized madrone soil did
not have a significant effect. No acetylene was reduced in soil without
seedlings. Azospirillum sp., a microaerophilic
nitrogen (N2) fixing bacterium, was isolated from within the mycorrhizas of
inoculated seedlings harvested from the manzanita site. These results suggest
that early successional ectomycorrhizal shrubs and broadleaved trees may be important
in maintaining mycorrhizal fungi and associated N2 fixers after severe
disturbance.
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4. Amaranthus, M.P. and D.A. Perry.
1987. Effect of soil transfer on ectomycorrhiza formation and the survival and
growth of conifer seedlings on old, nonreforested clear-cuts. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research
17(8): 944-950.
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand health
growth
mycorrhizal response
Abstract: Small
amounts (150 ml) of soil from established conifer plantations and mature forest
were transferred to planting holes on 3 sites in the Klamath Mts., S. Oregon and N. California. The sites had been clear felled and burned 8-27 yr
earlier and unsuccessfully reforested. At Cedar Camp, a high alt. (1720 m)
southerly slope with sandy soil, transfer of soil from a Douglas fir plantation
increased first-yr survival of Douglas fir seedlings by 50%, mycorrhizal
formation and b.a. growth. Soil from mature forest did not enhance survival and
growth. Soil transfer was less effective on 2 sites at lower alt. with clayey
soils. Douglas fir seedlings at Crazy Peak showed similar, but less well defined, patterns to those
at Cedar Camp. All Pinus lambertiana seedlings at Wood Creek survived well and
were generally unaffected by soil transfer. Results suggest that adequate
mycorrhizal formation is critical to seedling growth and survival on cold,
droughty sites. Transfer of soil from a suitable source may offset the decline
in native mycorrhizal fungi if reforestation is delayed.
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5. Amaranthus, M.P. and D.A. Perry. 1989a. Interaction effects of vegetation type and Pacific madrone
soil inocula on survival, growth and mycorrhiza formation of Douglas-fir.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 19(5): 550-556.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
tree/stand health
mycorrhizal response
Abstract: One-yr-old
non-mycorrhizal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings were planted in
1985 in cleared blocks within 3 adjacent vegetation types in SW Oregon, viz.,
whiteleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida), annual grass meadow, and an open
stand of Oregon white oak (Quercus garryana). Within subplots in each block,
either pasteurized or unpasteurized soil from a nearby Pacific madrone (Arbutus
menziesii) stand was transferred to the planting holes of the seedlings;
control seedlings received no madrone soil. Second-year survival averaged 92,
43 and 12% for seedlings planted on the manzanita, meadow and oak sites,
respectively. Growth differences generally paralleled survival differences.
Added madrone soil, whether pasteurized or unpasteurized, did not influence
survival. Unpasteurized madrone soil substantially increased the growth of
seedlings on the manzanita site, but not in the meadow or oak stand.
Pasteurized madrone soil did not affect growth in any of the vegetation types.
Unpasteurized madrone soil nearly tripled the number of mycorrhizal root tips
forming on seedlings and resulted in formation of a new mycorrhiza type on the
manzanita site, although it had little or no effect on the meadow or oak sites.
These results suggest that manzanita and madrone impose a biological pattern on
soils that stimulates Douglas fir growth and survival, and support results of
other studies indicating that root symbionts and rhizosphere organisms mediate
interactions among plant species.
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6. Amaranthus, M.P. and D.A. Perry.
1989b. Rapid root tip and mycorrhiza formation and increased survival of
Douglas-fir seedlings after soil transfer. New-Forests 3(3): 259-264.
Keywords: planting operations
mycorrhizal response
root development
tree/stand health
Abstract: In
order to re-inoculate soil with mycorrhizal fungi, small amounts (about 150 ml)
of soil from an established Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantation were
added to planting holes when Douglas fir seedlings were planted on an old,
unrevegetated clearcut in the Klamath Mountains of Oregon. Seedlings were lifted throughout the growing season to
determine the influence of soil transfer on the rate of root tip initiation and
mycorrhiza formation. Six weeks after planting, seedlings receiving plantation
soil had formed 62% more root tips than controls; however, no statistically
significant differences were apparent 15 weeks after planting. By that time, a
small percentage of root tips were visibly mycorrhizal; seedlings receiving
transferred soil had the most colonization (13.6 vs. 3.5 per seedling, p
<less or =>0.05). Of seedlings receiving transfer soil, 36.6% survived
the first growing season, compared to 11.3% of control seedlings. At this high
altitude, soils often remain frozen well into spring, leaving only a brief
period between the time when soils become warm enough for root growth and the
onset of summer drought. Under these conditions, the rapid root growth and
mycorrhiza formation stimulated by plantation soil increases the ability of
seedlings to survive the first growing season.
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7. Arnott, J.T. and F.T. Pendl. 1994.
Field performance of several tree species and stock types planted in montane
forests of coastal British Columbia. Canadian-Forest-Service, Pacific and Yukon Region Information Report BC-X-347. viii + 45 p.
Keywords: nursery operations
planting operations
growth
tree/stand health
wood quality
Abstract: Planting
trials were established at sites within the Mountain Hemlock and montane
Coastal Western Hemlock biogeoclimatic zones. Six test areas were chosen within
each zone. Amabilis fir (Abies amabilis), noble fir (A. procera), yellow cedar
(Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) were the
species selected for planting in the Mountain Hemlock zone. In addition to
Abies amabilis and A. procera, western white pine (Pinus monticola), western
redcedar (Thuja plicata), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and western
hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) were planted in the Coastal Western Hemlock zone.
Plug (PSB 211), plug transplant and bareroot stock
types were used for the eight species across both zones. Seedlings were planted
during the autumn (September/October) and spring (May) in each of two
successive years: 1978-79 and 1979-80. Survival, growth and tree form 13 years
after planting were used as indicators of the reliability (a combination of
tree survival and form) and productivity of the planting treatment
combinations. Noble fir and amabilis fir were the most reliable species in the
Mountain Hemlock zone; i.e. these species have average survival rates higher
than 80% and few form defects. Yellow cedar crowns were badly broken by snow,
which reduced the reliability of this species in the early years of plantation
establishment. The growth, survival and form of mountain hemlock ranked between
that of the true firs and yellow cedar. Noble fir was by far the most
productive species in the Mountain Hemlock zone. Within the Coastal Western
Hemlock zone no single species demonstrated a superior combination of productivity
or reliability. Douglas fir, western hemlock and western redcedar were good
species in the lower elevations of the zone, whereas noble fir and amabilis fir
were better species at the upper elevational limits of the zone. Western white
pines should be avoided until rust-resistant seed sources are available. Little
variation was found among the three planting stock options and even less
between the two planting seasons. Plug transplant stock was more reliable than
bareroot or plug stock; productivity ranked from greatest to least in the
following order within both zones: plug transplant, bareroot and plug stock.
This ranking among stock types may well change as different stock types are
developed. However, the relative size and design differences among stock types,
no matter when they become available, will always have an effect on the
ultimate reliability and productivity of planted trees. Autumn planting gave
significantly lower survival in the Coastal Western Hemlock zone only.
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8. Axelrood, P.E., W.K. Chapman, K.A.
Seifert, D.B. Trotter and G. Shrimpton. 1998. Cylindrocarpon and Fusarium root
colonization of Douglas-fir seedlings from British Columbia reforestation sites. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28:1198-1206.
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand protection
tree/stand health
Abstract: Poor
performance of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations established in
1987 has occurred in southwestern British Columbia. Affected sites were planted with 1-yr-old container stock
that exhibited some root dieback in the nursery. A study was initiated in 1991
to assess Cylindrocarpon and Fusarium root infection in planted and naturally
regenerating (natural) Douglas fir seedlings from 7 affected plantations.
Percentages of seedlings harbouring Cylindrocarpon spp. and percentage root
colonization were significantly greater for planted seedlings than natural
seedlings. A significant linear trend in Cylindrocarpon root colonization was
observed for planted seedlings with colonization levels being highest for roots
closest to the remnants of the root plug and decreasing at distances greater
than 10 cm from that region. This trend in Cylindrocarpon colonization was not
observed for natural seedlings. Cylindrocarpon destructans var. destructans
[Nectria radicola var., radicola] and C. cylindroides var. cylindroides were
the only species isolated from planted and natural conifer seedlings. For most
sites, percentage of seedlings harbouring Fusarium spp. and percentage Fusarium
root colonization were less than for Cylindrocarpon. Recovery of Fusarium spp.
from seedlings and root colonization levels were not significantly different
for planted and natural seedlings from all sites.
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9. Bloomberg, W.J. 1988. Modeling
control strategies for laminated root rot in managed Douglas-fir stands: model
development. Phytopathology 78(4): 403-409.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
mechanical preparation
tree/stand protection
tree/stand health
Abstract: A model
of laminated root rot caused by Phellinus [Inonotus] weirii was developed to
assess potential control strategies in managed Pseudotsuga menziesii stands.
The model mimicked key processes in disease initiation and development
quantified as functions of time and space. These processes were horizontal and
vertical tree root distribution, root contact with inoculum and among root
systems, spread of mycelium through root systems, root decay, reduction of
diam. growth in infected trees, tree mortality and persistence of inoculum in
roots of stumps and killed trees. The processes were expressed as mathematical
functions which were integrated in a computer program to calculate spread of
the disease and stand-growth loss and mortality. Data for quantification of
functions were obtained by experiments and from the literature. Simulated
control practices included infected stump removal, sanitation fellings and
mixed planting of Douglas fir and resistant species. Accuracy of the model was
tested by comparing calculated disease spread and mortality with the following
data: (1) spread and damage in two 60-yr-old, 1-ha stands in Oregon, (2)
results from a statistically based model for spread and damage that had
performed satisfactorily, and (3) observed spread and damage behaviour in
stands of different ages and growth rates. Results from the model compared
favourably with all of the above situations.
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10. Brand, D.G. 1986a. A competition index for predicting the vigour of planted
Douglas-fir in southwestern British Columbia.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 16(1): 23-29.
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand health
growth
Abstract: As a
method of quantifying brush competition, data from 124 planted Douglas firs, age 1-5 yr, were used to derive a competition index
to predict changes in tree vigour measured as a relative production rate. The
index, which includes measures of brush proximity, relative ht. and % ground
cover, appears to act as a measure of light interception around the tree crown.
Tree vigour was found to be largely a function of the age of the tree from
planting and the competition index. Foliage-based measures of growth vigour
were related more strongly to the index than measures of b.a.
or ht. The index has potential for assessing interspecific competition problems
on suitable sites. Caution must be used in extrapolating results outside
Douglas fir plantations on moist rich sites in coastal BC.
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11. Brand, D.G. 1986b.
Competition-induced changes in developmental features of planted Douglas-fir in
southwestern British Columbia. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 16(2): 191-196.
Keywords: planting operations
tree morphology
tree physiology
growth
Abstract: From
measurements in 1- to 5-yr-old plantations, developmental characteristics of
Douglas fir were tested against a competition index based on measures of the
brush canopy surrounding individual trees. The most promising characteristics
for assessing competition were specific leaf area, the allometric relationship
of ht. to b.a. and bud production on nodal shoots.
Measures of foliar N and leaf internode length were less well correlated with
the competition index. Comparing these results with those of laboratory studies
indicated that, on the study sites, brush competition effects on planted trees
are expressed through adaptation to reduced light intensity. Developmental
variables relating to moisture and nutritional status were not as strongly
related to the competition index. This may reflect reduced tree demand or
secondary brush canopy effects.
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12. Brandeis, T.J., M. Newton and
E.C. Cole. 2001. Underplanted conifer seedling survival and growth in thinned
Douglas-fir stands. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 31(2): 302-312.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
commercial thinning
site preparation
chemical preparation
release treatments
chemical release
growth
tree/stand health
regeneration
Abstract: In a
multilevel study conducted at the Oregon State University's McDonald-Dunn
Research Forest, Oregon, USA, to determine limits to underplanted conifer
seedling growth, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir (Abies
grandis), western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla) seedlings were planted in January 1993 beneath second-growth
Douglas-fir stands that had been thinned in 1992 to basal areas ranging from 16
to 31 m2/ha. Understorey vegetation was treated with a broadcast herbicide
(glyphosate + imazapyr) application prior to thinning, a directed release
herbicide (glyphosate, plus triclopyr for tolerant woody stems) application 2
years later, or no treatment beyond harvest disturbance. Residual overstorey
density was negatively correlated with percent survival for all four species.
Broadcast herbicide application improved survival of grand fir and western
hemlock. Western redcedar, grand fir and western hemlock stem volumes were
inversely related to overstorey tree density and this effect increased over
time. There was a strong indication that this was also the case for
Douglas-fir. Reduction of competing understorey vegetation resulted in larger
fourth-year stem volumes in grand fir and western hemlock.
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13. Brandeis, T.J., M. Newton and
E.C. Cole. 2002. Biotic injuries on conifer seedlings planted in forest
understory environments. New Forests 24:1-14.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
chemical preparation
release treatments
chemical release
thinning
tree/stand protection
growth
tree/stand health
Abstract: The
effects of partial overstorey retention, understorey vegetation management, and
protective Vexar(R) tubing on the frequency and severity of biotic injuries in
a two-storied stand underplanted with western redcedar (Thuja plicata),
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir (Abies grandis), and western
hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) were investigated. The most prevalent source of
damage was browsing by black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionis columbiana); deer
browsed over 74% of Douglas-fir and over 36% of western redcedar seedlings one
or more times over the four years of this study. Neither the spatial pattern of
thinning (even or uneven) nor the density of residual overstorey affected
browsing frequency. Spraying subplots may have slightly increased browsing
frequency, but the resulting reduction of the adjacent understorey vegetation
increased the volume of all seedlings by 13%, whether or not they were browsed.
Vexar(R) tubing did not substantially affect seedling survival, browsing damage
frequency, or fourth-year volume. Greater levels of overstorey retention
reduced frequency of second flushing. Chafing by deer and girdling by rodents
and other small mammals began once seedlings surpassed 1 m in height.
Essentially all grand fir seedlings exhibited a foliar fungus infection.
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14. Cameron, I.R. 1988. An evaluation of the density management diagram for coastal
Douglas-fir. BC Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report 024.
vi + 17 p.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
yield
Abstract: Yield
predictions based on Drew and Flewelling's (1979) density management diagram
for coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were compared with remeasured
plot data from British Columbia. The diagram overestimated standing volume by 64% and mean
diameter by 24% on average. Volumes predicted for plantations established at
initial densities between 300 and 3000 trees per hectare exceeded nearly all
the plots in the database. Because of the unattainable production targets set
by the diagram, strategic plans based on its predictions would be seriously in
error. Consequently, the diagram cannot be used in its current form as a
silvicultural planning tool in stands of Douglas fir on the coast of British Columbia.
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15. Carter, R.E., I.M. Miller and K.
Klinka. 1986. Relationships between growth form and stand density in immature
Douglas-fir. Forestry-Chronicle 62(5): 440-445.
Keywords: planting operations
wood
quality
tree
morphology
growth
Abstract: Spacing
was found to affect stem and crown characteristics and branching at whorls 6-10
in 27-yr-old Douglas fir established at 3 spacings (1.8x1.8, 3.6x3.6 and
4.6x4.6 m) near Haney, British
Columbia. Ht., d.b.h. and stem diam. at
the base of the live crown increased significantly with spacing, while age and
ht. at the base of the live crown decreased. Increased spacing resulted in
significantly greater branch diam. at whorls 6-10 and, in some whorls, an
increase in branch number. Swelling of the stem at branch whorls, the number of
Lammas whorls, knottiness ratio and a subjective index of stem form (where
higher index indicated poorer form) increased with spacing. The selection of
initial spacing is discussed and it is concluded that intensive management
practices, e.g. thinning and pruning, will be necessary in all regimes if clear
wood is to be produced over short rotations.
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16. Childs, S.W. and L.E. Flint.
1987. Effect of shadecards, shelterwoods, and clearcuts on temperature and
moisture environments. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 18(3): 205-217.
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand health
soil properties
tree physiology
tree phenology
Abstract: A
comparison was made of two common techniques used to improve seedling survival
on hot, dry reforestation sites. Adjacent shelterwood and clearcut sites in SW Oregon, USA, planted with 2+0 Douglas fir, were located and
instrumented to compare temp. and moisture. In
addition, cardboard shadecards were placed beside half of the seedlings
studied. Seasonal measurements or observations of soil moisture, soil temp.,
solar radiation, air temp., stomatal diffusion resistance, seedling phenology
and survival provided the basis for comparisons. Shelterwoods and shadecards
improved seedling survival in relation to the clearcut. Both treatments
affected soil temp. but the nature of the effects was
different. The shelterwood canopy reduced solar radiation incident at the soil
surface and caused cooler soil temp. throughout the
soil profile. Shadecards reduced soil temp. only to a
depth of 20 mm. Both treatments reduced the duration of periods of high soil
temp. Shelterwood treatment delayed seasonal water loss and reduced seedling
water stress as measured by stomatal resistance. Shadecards did not
significantly affect seedling stomatal resistance. Differences in seedling
survival caused by shadecards and shelterwoods are apparently due to different influences
on the seedling microclimate. Shelterwood causes a large reduction in soil
temp. as well as decreased seedling water stress.
Shadecards modify the soil temp. less extensively and
so have less effect on seedling survival.
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17. Childs, S.W., H.R. Holbo and E.L.
Miller. 1985. Shadecard and shelterwood modification of the soil temperature
environment. Soil-Science-Society-of-America-Journal 49(4): 1018-1023.
Keywords: planting operations
soil properties
Abstract: A study
was conducted on steep, south-facing slopes in southwest Oregon to assess the effect of two common reforestation practices
on the soil thermal environment. Three clearcut sites and three shelterwood
sites were instrumented to measure soil temperature at five depths in the vicinity
of shaded and unshaded Douglas-fir seedlings. Since the soils studied were
skeletal, heat capacities of both fine and coarse soil fractions were
determined for each site. These data were used to estimate soil heat fluxes.
Shelterwoods decrease soil temperatures approximately 6 K when compared with
clearcuts. This result holds at both 20- and 320-mm depths. Shelterwoods also
decrease the depth of diurnal heating and decrease maximum hourly heat loss and
gain values by 73 and 80 W/msuperscript 2, respectively. Shadecards, cardboard
rectangles placed to the southwest of seedlings, generally have little effect
on the soil temperature regime of skeletal soils but are effective in reducing
daily heat flux. The dominant shadecard effect is a decrease in average daytime
heat flux by 22 W/msuperscript 2, but shadecards also decrease average
nighttime fluxes. Shelterwoods ameliorate seasonal soil temperature conditions
significantly and may be an appropriate technique in situations where
cumulative soil heating limits reforestation success. Shadecards should be
useful in situations where heat stress events of only a few days are a problem.
Over a season, shadecards exert little control, and their influence on stress
is limited. Since all soils studied had high heat capacities due to large rock
fragment content the conclusions of this study may be limited to soils with
large soil heat capacity.
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18. Colinas, C., R. Molina, J. Trappe
and D. Perry. 1994a. Ectomycorrhizas and rhizosphere
microorganisms of seedlings of Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco
planted on a degraded site and inoculated with forest soils pretreated with
selective biocides. New-Phytologist 127(3): 529-537.
Keywords: planting operations
fertilization
soil properties
mycorrhizal response
Abstract:
Inoculation of planting holes with small amounts of soil from a mature forest
or a plantation can improve formation of ectomycorrhizas on Pseudotsuga
menziesii seedlings in degraded clearcuts in southwestern Oregon. To determine the component(s) of transferred soil
responsible for increased ectomycorrhiza formation, soil from a clearcut, a
mature forest and a plantation was treated with one of the following: (1)
fertilizer to test for the effect of nutrients, (2) dimethoate and carbofuran
to test for the effect on microarthropods or nematodes, (3) fumagillin to test
for the effect on protozoa, (4) captan to test for the effect on fungi, (5)
penicillin and oxytetracycline to test for the effect on bacteria, (6)
pasteurization to test for the effect of active forms of organisms, (7)
Tyndallization to test for the effect of resting forms of organisms, or (8)
water as a control. The effect was studied of inoculation with soil subjected
to these treatments on number and types of ectomycorrhizas, on length of active
mycelium, and on number of active bacteria in the rhizosphere. Inoculation with
untreated forest or plantation soils increased the number of ectomycorrhizas
but did not change the mycorrhizal types present. Most agents had different
effects in different soils. Inoculation with pasteurized and Tyndallized
clearcut and plantation soils increased the number of Rhizopogon- and
Thelephora-type ectomycorrhizas and decreased the number of active bacteria, as
did untreated forest soil. It is hypothesized that the role of the soil
transfer is to provide a rhizosphere environment free from a deleterious organism
present in the clearcut. In this environment, beneficial organisms present in
the clearcut or brought in with the seedling from the nursery can proliferate.
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19. Colinas, C., D. Perry, R. Molina
and M. Amaranthus. 1994b. Survival and growth of Pseudotsuga menziesii
seedlings inoculated with biocide-treated soils at planting in a degraded
clearcut. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 24(8): 1741-1749.
Keywords: planting operations
fertilization
growth
tree/stand health
tree morphology
Abstract: To
determine the factors of transfer soils responsible for increased seedling
survival and growth, planting holes, at a site in SW Oregon, were inoculated
with forest, plantation, and clear-cut soils subjected to one of 8 treatments:
(i) treated with fertilizer to test for effects of nutrients; treated with
biocides to test for effects of (ii) grazers (microarthropods or nematodes),
(iii) protozoa, (iv) fungi, or (v) bacteria; (vi) pasteurized; (vii)
Tyndallized; or (viii) untreated. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings
were planted in June 1990 and seedling growth and survival was assessed in
December 1990. Survival was increased by inoculation with untreated plantation
soils, but not if they were fertilized or treated with dimethoate + carbofuran
(grazercide), fumagillin (protozoacide), or oxytetracycline + penicillin
(bactericide). Addition of untreated forest soil did not increase survival. For
all soils, survival was increased by captan (fungicide), pasteurization and
Tyndallization. Untreated plantation and forest soil transfers increased dry
weights whereas neither did when treated with dimethoate + carbofuran. Dry
weights of seedlings given clear-cut soil were increased by fertilization,
pasteurization and Tyndallization of the soil; the latter two treatments also
increased the number of short roots. It is hypothesized that stimulation of
seedling growth by soil transfers was related to an increased rate of nutrient
mineralization due to microbivorous soil animals contained within the transfer
soils. Soil transfers may have enhanced seedling survival by at least two
mechanisms: (i) by providing a safe site for beneficial rhizosphere organisms
to proliferate, free from competing organisms that have proliferated in the
clear-cut soil; and (ii) through volatile organic compounds, especially
ethylene, that stimulated seedling root growth.
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20. Comeau, P. and D. Sachs. 1992.
Simulation of the consequences of red alder management on the growth of
Douglas-fir using FORCYTE-11. B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA
Report 187. 45 p.
Keywords: planting operations
yield
computer modeling
Abstract: The
ecosystem model FORCYTE-11 was used to investigate the effects of initial red
alder (Alnus glutinosa) density on yields of Pseudotsuga menziesii and alder
over a 80-year rotation, the effects of delayed planting
of red alder on stand yields, and the effects of 5 management strategies on the
total yield over a 240-year period.
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21. Copes, D.L. and M. Bordelon.
1994. Effects of tree spacing and height reduction on cone production in two
Douglas-fir seed orchards. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 9(1): 5-7.
Keywords: seed orchard management
planting operations
reproduction
Abstract: Two
treatments involving tree spacings (12 and 24 ft) within rows spaced 24 ft
apart and height control (topped or not topped at 20 ft) were evaluated in 17-
and 22-yr-old coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) seed
orchards in Oregon. Treatment differences for cone production were not
significant because of the large tree-to-tree variation in cone production and,
at one orchard, the confounding of location with treatment. Cone production in
1990 averaged slightly more than 2 bushels per tree (range 0 to 11.7 bushels).
Average production per 96 linear ft of orchard row was 14.8 bushels.
OSU
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22. Curtis, R.O., G.W. Clendenen and
D.J. DeMars. 1981. A new stand simulator for coast Douglas-fir: DFSIM user's
guide. Pacific-Northwest-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report
PNW-GTR-128. ii
+ 79 p.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
precommercial thinning
commercial thinning
fertilization
yield
computer modeling
Abstract: A
description of a computer program, written in FORTRAN IV, for simulating
managed stands. The program has been developed from remeasured plot data
contributed by many organizations in the Pacific Northwest USA. It can produce
yield tables which include estimates of effects of initial spacing,
precommercial and commercial thinning and addition of N fertilizer. Topics
discussed include program limitation and potential for further development.
Appendices include operating instructions and notes on testing. The program is
available from the authors on request.
OSU Link
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23. DeYoe, D.R., H.R. Holbo and K.
Waddell. 1986. Seedling protection from heat stress between lifting and
planting. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 1(4): 124-126.
Keywords: nursery operations
planting operations
tree/stand protection
tree/stand health
Abstract: Seven
protective treatments were evaluated for preventing overheating of 2+0 Douglas
fir seedlings in Kraft paper bags. Trials were conducted in May 1982 at Corvallis, Oregon on 3 clear days with max. air
temp. of 78 degrees F and a hazy day with max. temp. 66 degrees . Seedlings were
returned to cold storage (35 degrees ) overnight. Seedling temp. differed
significantly between treatments. Unprotected seedlings (paper bag only) in
full sun reached 89 degrees after 7 h. Green canvas caused increased heating
rates and higher temp. (104 degrees after 7 h). A
white sheet and a crinkled foil wrap performed no better than a paper bag
alone. Canvas painted off-white reduced max. temp. to 80 degrees . Heavy shading (2% of full sun) and Mylar
with white surface towards the sun were the most effective materials for
preventing overheating (max. temp. 59-60 degrees ).
Mylar with the silver surface facing the sun was less effective (max. temp. 71 degrees ).
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24. Donegan, K.K., L.S. Watrud, R.J.
Seidler, S.P. Maggard, T. Shiroyama, L.A. Porteous and G. DiGiovanni. 2001.
Soil and litter organisms in Pacific Northwest forests under different management practices. Applied Soil Ecology 18:159-175.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
prescribed fire
soil properties
Abstract: Soil
and litter organisms were monitored for their response to different forest
management practices. Litter and soil cores (0-10, 10-20 cm) were collected at
approximately 8-week intervals over a 19-month period from a low elevation
110-140-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forest and adjacent
8-year-old clearcut in the Oregon Cascades, and from a high elevation
200-250-year-old Douglas fir forest and adjacent 5-year-old clearcut in the McKenzie River drainage. The low elevation clearcut had been broadcast
burned and replanted with Douglas fir trees and a grass (Dactylis and
Lolium)-legume (Trifolium and Lotus) mixture whereas the high elevation
clearcut was not burned, large woody debris was left, and it was replanted with
Douglas fir, Noble fir [Abies procera], Grand fir [Abies grandis], and western
white pine [Pinus monticola]. The litter and soil cores were analysed for types
of microarthropods and numbers of nematodes, fungi, culturable, aerobic
bacteria, spore-forming bacteria, and chitin-degrading bacteria. Microbial
community metabolic profiles, using the Biolog method, were also generated for
the 0-10 cm soil samples. Populations of Pseudomonas spp. were analysed in the
litter and soil samples using 16S rDNA fingerprints. Plant surveys were
conducted to identify potential relationships of soil organisms to plant
community composition. At both elevational field sites, there were
significantly (P < 0.05) higher levels of nematodes and microarthropods in
litter and soil in forest plots than in clear felled plots. Bacterial and
fungal populations were also significantly higher in litter in forest plots
than in clear felled plots at the high elevation site. In the litter and soil
at the low elevation site and the soil at the high elevation site, however,
microbial levels were higher in clear felled plots than in forest plots. The
Pseudomonas spp. populations and the microbial community metabolic profiles in
the 0-10 cm soil differed significantly between the forest and clear felled
plots at the low elevation site but not at the high elevation site. At both
elevational field sites, the plant cover (%) and plant density were
significantly higher in clear felled plots than in forest plots. These observed
differences in the population size and composition of organisms between mature
forests and both low management and high management clearcuts demonstrated the
impacts forest management practices may have on the soil ecosystem.
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25. Dunsworth, B.G. 1988. Douglas-fir
fall root phenology: a bioassay approach to defining planting windows. In
Proceedings: 10th North American Forest Biology Workshop, 'Physiology and
genetics of reforestation', University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, July 10-22, 1988. Eds. J. Worrall, J. Loo-Dinkins and
D.P. Lester. pp. 295-307.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
tree/stand health
tree phenology
Abstract: Natural
seedling root phenology during the autumn and spring was observed in Douglas
fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] and western hemlock [Tsuga heterophylla] over
several seasons on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. These observations were used to determine the soil
climate conditions under which peak activity occurred. Mitotic indexing and
total root tip counts were used to quantify root activity. Peak activity for
both spring and autumn in both species could be reasonably bracketed by soil
climate conditions of -1 bar soil tension and 4 degrees C. The hypothetical
planting window defined by these soil climate conditions was then tested with a
series of timing of planting studies for Douglas fir (autumn) and western
hemlock (spring) containerized stock. The results indicated that although
quality of planting stock and the season following planting are influential, a
10 to 15% survival and growth advantage can be gained by planting within the
hypothetical window.
Non-OSU
Link
26. Fight, R.D., S. Johnston, D.G. Briggs, T.D. Fahey, N.A. Bolon and J.M. Cahill.
1995. How much timber quality can we afford in coast Douglas-fir stands?
Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 10(1): 12-16.
Keywords: pruning
planting operations
wood quality
economics
Abstract: Once
site and genetic stock are selected, management of stocking, rotation age, and
pruning are the principal means available to foresters to affect wood quality
and value in stands of coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii)
in the Pacific
Northwest. Financial
evaluation was used to test whether or not improvements in wood quality and
value by these means justify the cost of doing so. This analysis showed in
general that improving quality through high levels of stocking or extending
rotations were costly ways to improve wood quality while pruning was cost
effective.
OSU
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27. Grotta, A.T., B.L. Gartner and
S.R. Radosevich. 2004. Influence of species proportion and timing of
establishment on stem quality in mixed red alder-Douglas-fir plantations.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 34(4): 863-873.
Keywords: planting operations
tree morphology
wood quality
Abstract: The
relationships among stand structure, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) branch
characteristics, and red alder (Alnus rubra) stem form attributes were explored
for 10- to 15-year-old trees growing in mixed Douglas-fir-red alder plantations
in Oregon, USA. Treatments included a range of species proportions, and red
alder was either planted simultaneously with Douglas-fir or after 5 years. Both
replacement effects (total stand density held constant) and additive effects
(stand density doubled) of competition were considered. When the two species were
planted simultaneously and red alder proportion was low, red alder trees had
low crown bases and much stem defect (lean, sweep, and multiple stems).
Douglas-fir grew slowly when the two species were planted simultaneously. When
red alder planting was delayed, species proportion did not affect red alder
stem form, and height to the base of the Douglas-fir live crown decreased with
increasing red alder proportion. Doubling Douglas-fir density increased the
height to the base of the Douglas-fir live crown; however, doubling stand
density by adding red alder did not affect Douglas-fir crown height.
Douglas-fir lumber coming from mixed stands may be inferior because of the
changes in knot characteristics associated with these different patterns of
crown recession. In stands with a low proportion of red alder, red alder
product recovery may be compromised because of the stem defects described
above.
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28. Haase, D.L., J.H. Batdorff and R.
Rose. 1993. Effect of root form on 10-year survival and growth of planted
Douglas-fir trees. Tree-Planters' Notes 44(2): 53-57.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
tree/stand health
Abstract: Douglas
fir seedlings (Pseudotsuga menziesii) were planted with three root-form
treatments including C-roots ('correctly' planted controls), L-roots, and
J-roots. After 10 years, there were no significant differences in outplanting
performance between the three root-form treatments on a good site in western Oregon. The results are in agreement with those of other studies,
which suggests that when no other confounding planting
errors are present, deformed root systems play a less dramatic role in
subsequent field performance than is generally thought. These results in no way
imply that poor planting is acceptable.
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29. Hahn, P.F. and A.J. Smith. 1983.
Douglas-fir planting stock performance comparison after the third growing
season. Tree-Planters' Notes 34(1): 33-39.
Keywords: nursery operations
planting operations
growth
tree/stand health
Abstract: Three
types of containerized (40, 75 or 125 cmsuperscript 3 containers) and bare
rooted (2+1, 3+0 and plug-1 stock) seedlings were planted out in Oregon in Feb. 1979 on N. and S. facing slopes, clear felled in
1978. In general, containerized seedlings showed superior survival rates and
greater height growth - particularly on the harsh S. slope, and lower
reforestation costs. The 75-cmsuperscript 3 containerized seedlings are
recommended, except for N. facing and wet coastal areas, where brush competition
can be severe shortly after planting. In such areas, taller bare-rooted
seedlings performed better.
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Link
30. Haight, R.G. 1993a. The economics of Douglas-fir and red alder management with
stochastic price trends. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 23(8):
1695-1703.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
prescribed fire
release treatments
chemical release
thinning
precommercial thinning
commercial thinning
tree/stand protection
economics
Abstract: A
financial analysis of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and red alder (Alnus
rubra) management was conducted using yield projections from the Stand
Projection Simulator for the Pacific Northwest region of the United Sates. The analysis included
uncertainty in the price trends and stocking levels of both species following
reforestation. Results from a case study in which Douglas fir price is likely
to increase faster than red alder price show that (i) on more productive sites,
greater regeneration investment is justified to increase the likelihood of
Douglas fir establishment, (ii) on less productive sites, low-cost regeneration
options that produce mixed-species stands have expected present values close to
or greater than a high-cost Douglas fir regeneration effort, (iii) optimal
precommercial removal of red alder depends on mid-rotation prices and
regeneration success, and in many cases growing a mixed-species stand to
maturity produces the highest economic return, and (iv) commercial thinning of
Douglas fir increases the expected present value of the most intensive
regeneration option by up to 10%. The low-cost regeneration options have
relatively high expected returns because of low initial investments and the
presence of two species that may have high values in the future. The
sensitivity of these results to changes in the probability distributions of
regeneration success and price trends is discussed.
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31. Haight, R.G. 1993b. Technology change and the economics of silvicultural investment.
Rocky-Mountain-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report RM-GTR-232. ii + 18 p.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
prescribed fire
release treatments
chemical release
tree/stand protection
thinning
commercial thinning
precommercial thinning
yield
economics
Abstract: Financial
analyses of intensive and low-cost reforestation options are conducted for
loblolly pine (Pinus contorta) stands with broadleaved competition in the
Southern USA, and Douglas fir with red alder (Pseudotsuga menziesii with Alnus
rubra) in the Pacific Northwest. Results show that the expected present values
(EPVs) of low-cost options that result in mixtures of conifers and broadleaves
are superior in some situations to the EPVs of the intensive options.
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32. Heilman, P. 1983. Effects of surface treatment and interplanting of shrub alder on
rowth of Douglas-fir on coal spoils. Journal-of-Environmental-Quality
12(1): 109-113.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
mechanical preparation
growth
tree physiology
soil properties
tree/stand health
Abstract: Annual
growth of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) planted on
topsoiled spoils at a coal mine near Centralia, Wash., was monitored for the first 6 y after planting.
Treatments were contour bedding, contour bedding plus interplanted Sitka alder (Alnus sinuata (Reg.) Rydb.), and unbedded control.
The bedding significantly increased growth of Douglas-fir in all 5 y of the study.
Total height growth after 5 y was 35% greater than control on the bedding only
plots, and 43% greater on the bedding plus Sitka alder plots. Height growth of Douglas-fir in the mixed
stand was significantly greater during the 2nd and 3rd y of the study, but
after 5 yr, no significant difference was evident in total height between the
mixed and pure Douglas-fir plots. Concentration of N in Douglas-fir foliage was
significantly increased by bedding in the fifth but not in the fourth year.
Interplanting with Sitka alder had no significant effect on N in Douglas-fir
foliage. The top 0.3 m of soil in the ridged portion of the bedded area
contained significantly less moisture over a summer than did the top 0.3 m of
the unbedded soil. At deeper depths, however, soil moisture was not
significantly affected by bedding. Wind damage caused by a severe storm that
occurred after 5 y was very much greater on the unbedded plots (49% wind-thrown
vs. 9 to 15% wind-thrown on the bedded plots) despite the smaller size of the
trees on unbedded plots.
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33. Helgerson, O.T. 1985. Survival
and growth of planted Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) and
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws.) on a hot, dry site in
southwest Oregon. Tree-Planters' Notes 36(4): 3-6.
Keywords: nursery operations
planting operations
tree/stand health
growth
Abstract:
One-yr-old containerized seedlings and 2-yr-old bare rooted seedlings of both
species were planted in Feb. 1982 on a W.-facing 35% slope on Tin Pan Peak. The site receives <760 mm of precipitation annually.
Weeds were controlled with herbicides applied before and after planting.
Survival after 2 yr averaged 94% for all stock types; survival of bare rooted
seedlings (98-99%) was significantly better than that of containerized
seedlings (88-92%). Relative vol. growth was greater for pine than Douglas fir.
After 2 yr, the 2+0 bare rooted pines were significantly larger than the 2+0 Douglas
firs, despite a smaller starting size.
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34. Helgerson, O.T. 1990a. Effects of
alternate types of microsite shade on survival of planted Douglas-fir in
southwest Oregon.
New-Forests 3(4): 327-332.
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand protection
tree/stand health
growth
Abstract: Five-yr
survival of 2+0 bare root Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings was
increased by 3 types of shading: cardboard shadecards placed S. or E. of
seedlings; and bottomless styrofoam cups inverted
around seedling base, on 2 S.-facing sites. On the drier site, seedlings
survived well without shading (89% unshaded, 98% shaded), but on the wetter
site, where seedlings were more stressed, shading was more beneficial (62%
unshaded, 89% shaded). Shading did not affect growth. Seedlings grew more in 5
yr on the drier than the wetter site, possibly because of better handling and
planting practices, less browsing by deer, and better weed control.
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35. Helgerson, O.T., S.D. Tesch, S.D. Hobbs and D.H. McNabb. 1989. Survival and growth of ponderosa
pine and Douglas-fir stocktypes on a dry low-elevation site in southwest Oregon. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 4(4): 124-128.
Keywords: nursery operations
planting operations
growth
tree/stand health
Abstract: Two
stocktypes (1+0 container-grown plugs and 2+0 nursery-grown bareroots) of
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
were planted on a hot, droughty, low-altitude site near Medford, Oregon, which had burned in 1981. The main objective was to
assess the potential for reforesting this type of site. After 5 growing
seasons, bare rooted stock survived (98%) significantly better than plugs
(89%); survival did not differ significantly by species. Douglas fir was taller
than pine, pine was larger in diam., and the 2 species had approximately equal
stem volumes. Bare rooted stock was consistently larger than plugs. Results
show that these species and stocktypes can provide good reforestation after 5
yr on this type of site when seedlings are of good quality, are planted
properly, and are given good weed control.
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36. Helgerson, O.T., S.D. Tesch, S.D. Hobbs and D.H. McNabb. 1992. Effects of stocktype, shading, and
species on reforestation of a droughty site in southwest Oregon. Northwest-Science 66(2): 57-61.
Keywords: nursery operations
planting operations
tree/stand protection
tree/stand health
growth
Abstract: On hot,
dry sites, shading may differentially increase survival of planted Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) according to seedling size, and Douglas fir may differ
from ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) in early survival and growth. The
survival and growth of Douglas fir seedlings (1+0 container-grown plugs and 2+0
bare-rooted seedlings, unshaded or shaded with cardboard shadecards at
planting) and unshaded 2+0 bare-rooted ponderosa pine were compared on a
droughty south facing clear felling in Oregon. The site was clear felled and
burned in 1982 and the seedlings were planted in 1983. Shading did not
significantly increase survival of plugs, possibly because of a wetter than
normal first summer, nor did shading affect growth of either Douglas fir stocktype 5 yr after planting. Bare-rooted Douglas fir
remained significantly larger than plugs, but relative growth rates for the
initially smaller plugs were significantly greater for diameter and volume.
Survival and growth of ponderosa pine tended to be better than those of Douglas
fir. It was concluded that both species appeared to be suitable for reforestation
after clear felling on sites subject to drought.
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37. Hermann, R.K. and D.P. Lavender.
1999. Douglas-fir planted forests. New-Forests 17(1/3): 53-70.
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
nursery
operations
planting
operations
site
preparation
release
treatments
fertilization
thinning
pruning
tree/stand
protection
growth
yield
Abstract: A
combination of superior wood quality and high productivity has made Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) one of the premier timber trees in the world. As such,
it is grown as a plantation species in several countries in Europe and South
America, and in New Zealand
and Australia, as well as
throughout its extensive natural range in western North
America. Decades of experience with the silviculture of young
stands have demonstrated that practices such as planting, the use of
genetically improved seedlings, precommercial and commercial thinning, and
fertilizing may dramatically increase the yield of industrial products over
that of natural forests. Further, such silviculture is compatible with the
production of desired amenities. Vigorous implementation of such practices
wherever Douglas fir is cultivated will increase the world's timber resources,
and be an effective strategy for reducing the pressure, occasioned by the
world's rapidly increasing population, to harvest the fragile tropical and
boreal forests.
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38. Hobbs, S.D. 1981. Stocktype selection and planting
techniques for Douglas-fir on skeletal soils in southwest Oregon.
In Reforestation of skeletal soils: proceedings of a workshop, Medford, OR,
USA, November 17-19, 1981. Eds. S.D. Hobbs and O.T.
Helgerson. pp. 92-96.
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand health
growth
Abstract: Stocktype
selection and planting techniques for Douglas-fir can have a significant impact
on seedling survival and growth on droughty skeletal soils in southwest Oregon. In these environments important seedling characteristics
are stock quality, shoot-root ratio, root morphology, and caliper. Planting and
special ameliorative techniques for sites with skeletal soils are discussed.
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39. Hong, S. and J.J. Morrell. 1997.
Treatability of Douglas-fir heartwood with ACZA or CCA: effect on site,
silvicultural practice, and wood properties. Forest-Products-Journal 47(10):
51-55.
Keywords: planting operations
fertilization
thinning
wood quality
Abstract: The
effects of site, silvicultural treatments, and wood properties on treatability
of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) heartwood, from Washington and Oregon, with chromated copper arsenate (CCA) or ammoniacal copper
zinc arsenate (ACZA) were studied. Thinning appeared to be associated with
slight improvements in treatability (penetration and retention of
preservative), but combinations of thinning and fertilization had no
significant effect on this property. Other factors such as site, height from
which the sample was removed, and percentage of juvenile wood had inconsistent
effects on treatability. Although the results indicate that silvicultural
practices have minimal effects on treatability of Douglas-fir, further studies
are required to clarify these effects.
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40. Hummel, S. and R. Hummel. 2004.
Five-year thinning response of an overgrown Douglas-fir Christmas tree
plantation. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 19(3): 171-174.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
growth
yield
economics
Abstract: A
15-year-old Douglas-fir Christmas tree plantation in western Oregon was thinned in 1996 according to regional sawtimber
conversion guidelines. The plantation comprised two strata, distinguished by
initial planting density (Area 1=5x5 ft and Area 2=10x10 ft). Unthinned control
plots were established in both Area 1 and Area 2 at the time of the thinning
treatment. Five years later, the quadratic mean diameter (QMD) in Area 1
(thinned) was 6.4 in. versus 5.2 in. in Area 1 (unthinned), while in Area 2
(thinned) the QMD was 11.4 in. compared to 9.3 in. in Area 2 (unthinned). Over
the same period, the volume/ac in Area 1 (thinned) (1,080 ft3/ac) was nearly
twice that of Area 1 (unthinned) (576 ft3/ac). In
contrast, the volume/ac in Area 2 (thinned) (2,318 ft3/acre) was almost half
that of Area 2 (unthinned) (4,264 ft3/ac). These
results suggest that while thinning was timely for Area 1, the thinning
treatment could have been delayed for Area 2. By plantation age 30, the treated
units in Area 1 and Area 2 have estimated yields of 9.6 and 11.6 thousand bd ft
(mbf), respectively, with no additional thinning. Given 2002 average prices for
#3 sawmill grade logs, gross return at age 30 would
range between $5,000 and $6,000/ac.
OSU
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41. Jaindl, R.G. and S.H. Sharrow.
1988. Oak/Douglas-fir/sheep: a three-crop silvopastoral system.
Agroforestry-Systems 6(2): 147-152.
Keywords: planting operations
release treatments
manual release
tree/stand health
growth
Abstract: A small
scale agroforestry study started in 1952 was revisited in 1985 to evaluate the
long-term influence of site preparation and grazing on tree growth and survival
in a system with Douglas fir, white oak (Quercus garryana) and sheep. In
1952-53, 2-yr-old Douglas fir seedlings were planted at the rate of 2500
trees/ha under 3 levels of site preparation: (1) no treatment; (2) oak thinned
by 50%; and (3) oak clear felled. From 1954 to 1960, yearling ewes grazed half
of each of the 3 thinning treatments for 3-4 wk each spring. The conifers were
undisturbed since grazing was discontinued in 1960. Survival of planted
conifers averaged 64% in 1985 and did not vary among either site preparation or
grazing treatments. From 1964 to 1985, trees on the thinned and clear felled
plantations grew an av. ht. of 1060 and 990 cm, respectively, compared with 900
cm on the unthinned plantation. D.b.h. averaged 3.8 and 5.6 cm greater on
thinned or clear felled plantations, respectively, than on the unthinned
control by 1985. Conifers on grazed plantations had increased ht. and d.b.h.
growth during the first 12 yr of plantation life, averaging 63 cm taller and
0.7 cm greater in d.b.h. than the ungrazed plots by 1964. By 1985 the
difference in ht. (122 cm) and d.b.h. (1.0 cm) between grazed and ungrazed
plantations was not statistically significant. These data suggest that although
site preparation can positively influence conifer growth, total clear felling
is no better than thinning oaks. Furthermore, proper grazing can increase ht.
and d.b.h. growth of the conifers during and immediately after the grazing
years.
OSU
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42. Jozsa, L.A. and G.R. Middleton. 1994. A discussion of wood quality
attributes and their practical implications. Forintek Canada
Corp. 42 p.
Keywords: planting operations
wood quality
tree morphology
Abstract: Wood
quality is defined as the suitability of wood for a particular end-use. Wood
anatomy and tree growth are discussed in terms of macroscopic and microscopic
features of a tree examined in cross section. End-use requirements are
described in terms of lumber grading. The following wood quality attributes are
introduced, defined and discussed in terms of their practical implications for
wood processing and wood products: wood density, density variation, juvenile wood/mature wood distribution, proportion of
heartwood/sapwood, fibre length, fibril angle, compression wood, knots, grain
and extractives. The potential for influencing tree growth characteristics
(e.g. wood density, branch size) and wood quality (structural and appearance
lumber grades) through stand stocking control is discussed.
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43. Kennedy, R.W. 1995. Coniferous
wood quality in the future: concerns and strategies. Wood Science and
Technology 29: 321-338.
Keywords: planting operations
wood quality
Abstract: As the
raw material base for forest products manufacturing shifts from old-growth to
short-rotation plantation stock, the wood from these younger trees will contain
larger proportions of juvenile wood. This in turn will influence the quality of
forest products obtained. The pattern of specific gravity variation in these
trees, which varies among the five most important Pacific Northwest species groups, is reviewed, and the nature of their
differences is related to growth habit. It is speculated that the shade
intolerance of some species manifests itself in an early culmination of annual
height increment, after which specific gravity increases rapidly to a maximum.
This is contrasted to shade-tolerant species, in which specific gravity may
take several decades to attain a minimum value, followed by only moderate
increases thereafter. In addition, faster growth rates in widely spaced
plantation trees tend to depress specific gravity and advance the age at which
these trees reach their minimum value, thereby compounding the overall wood
density deficit of short-rotation trees. Lower specific gravity, compounded
with reduced lignin content in juvenile wood, negatively influences kraft pulp
yield, but not pulp quality parameters such as sheet density, burst and tensile
strength. Reduced wood density, coupled with larger fibril angles in juvenile
wood, reduces average strength and stiffness of lumber from younger plantation
trees. Mechanical stress rating needs to be adopted to segregate the strong,
stiff material for engineered construction uses, because a large proportion of
visually graded lumber from juvenile wood zones will not meet currently
assigned stress values. Mechanical stress rating can ensure a continued stream
of appropriate engineering grades from future tree supplies. These conclusions
are drawn from data in the literature on Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus contorta,
Tsuga heterophylla, Picea spp., and Abies spp.
OSU
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44. Knapp, W.H., T.C. Turpin and J.H.
Beuter. 1984. Vegetation control for Douglas-fir regeneration on the Siuslaw National forest: a decision analysis. Journal-of-Forestry 82(3): 168-173.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
chemical preparation
mechanical preparation
prescribed fire
release treatments
chemical release
manual release
growth
yield
economics
Abstract: Records
from 324 plantations in Oregon were used to calculate the effect on stocking of various
methods of controlling competing vegetation before and after plantation
establishment. A decision tree analysis using 6 management regimes on 5
stocking classes indicated that if no site preparation or release (other than
broadcast burning to reduce fuels) were practised, the forest would produce 63%
of the m.a.i. and 35% of the present net worth (PNW) expected if all means of
control (chemical, manual and burning) were available and used. If only manual
control methods were used 78% of the max. m.a.i. and
57% of the max. PNW would be expected. When all methods except phenoxy
herbicides were available, the expected m.a.i. and PNW were reduced to no less
than 90%. The yield reduction varied with aspect, and the type of prelogging
vegetation. Declines were least on SW-facing sites that were originally
predominantly conifers, and greatest on NE-facing slopes that had supported
broadleaves. Limitations of the analysis are discussed.
OSU
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45. Knowe, S.A. 1994c. Silvicultural and economic value of vegetation
management in the Pacific
northwest. In Weed science education: the cost of
ignorance: Proceedings of the 47th annual meeting of the Southern Weed Science
Society, Dallas, Texas, USA, 17-19 January, 1994. pp. 92-97.
Keywords: planting operations
release treatments
yield
economics
Abstract: Models
indicated that the yield and net present value (NPV) of young Pseudotsuga
menziesii stands in Oregon varied with site index and planting density. Effects of
hardwood competition in 20-year-old plantations were predicted using the
Regional Vegetation Management Model (RVMM). A stand table so produced was used
for developing ORGANON, which simulated silvicultural treatments and growth for
40-60 years. Output from this was used to evaluate the economic consequences of
hardwood competition using ORGECON. It was found that the least impact was
observed at low site index with high planting density. Modifications to the
models are suggested.
46. Knowe, S.A., W.I. Stein and L.J. Shainsky. 1997. Predicting growth
response of shrubs to clear-cutting and site preparation in coastal Oregon forests. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 27(2):
217-226.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
chemical preparation
mechanical preparation
prescribed fire
stand conditions
Abstract:
Cover-projection models were developed based on algebraic difference
formulations of an exponential-power function to describe shrub recovery and
development patterns following clear cutting, site preparation and Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) planting at 4 sites in the Siuslaw National Forest,
Oregon. The sites formed part of the Coastal Site Preparation Study initiated
in 1980, in which the effects were tested of 6 treatments on shrub growth
patterns. Treatments were: none other than scalping a 30-cm spot when each 2-0
seedling was planted (control); spot clearing by cutting to 15 cm height all
woody vegetation within a 1.2 m radius of the seedling; spraying with
glyphosate (2.52 kg a.e./ha) in early autumn 1980; broadcasting burning slash
in midsummer 1980; manually slashing all woody vegetation in June 1980 and
broadcast burning later in the summer; and spraying with picloram + 2,4-D
(Tordon 101) in May or June 1980 (at 1.49 + 5.97 kg a.e./ha) and broadcast
burning in the summer. Results on the development of Douglas fir and associated
vegetation to age 10 yr have already been reported for this study (Stein (1995)
Research Paper - Pacific Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service, No. PNW-RP-473; Knowe & Stein (1995) Canadian Journal of
Forest Research 25 (9) 1538-1547). The shrub cover-projection
models were developed by incorporating indicator variables into the model rate
and shape parameters for the recovery of 3 specific shrubs (salal, Gaultheria
shallon; thimbleberry, Rubus parviflorus; and salmonberry, Rubus spectabilis),
and all shrubs. For salal, the shape parameter included an adjustment for
burning treatments that delayed maximum cover by several years in comparison
with unburned treatments. The rate parameter in the thimbleberry model was
adjusted for burning treatments; maximum cover occurred about 2 yr earlier in
burned than in unburned treatments. Both rate and shape parameters in the
salmonberry model were adjusted for burning treatments; delayed established but
increased growth rate and less salmonberry cover are characteristic of burned
treatments compared with the unburned treatments. The rate and shape parameters
in the model for the shrub group included adjustments for burning treatments.
Overstorey removal fostered shrub development, whereas site preparation
treatments slowed and curtailed it. The final cover-projection models accounted
for 68-92% of the total variation in cover, with the adjustments for burning
accounting for 1.5-3.3% of the variation. The predicted growth patterns are
consistent with trends in site occupancy and published autecological
characteristics.
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47. Korpela, E.J., S.D. Tesch and R.
Lewis. 1992. Plantations vs. advance regeneration: height growth comparisons
for southwestern Oregon. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 7(2): 44-47.
Keywords: planting operations
release treatments
growth
Abstract: Model
projections of newly-planted Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings grown
under three competition regimes were compared across three site classes with
growth of three height classes of Douglas fir and white fir (Abies concolor)
advance regeneration for twenty years following overstorey removal (data from
stem analysis of 359 Douglas fir and 344 white fir trees growing in 80 stands
in SW Oregon and northern California). It is concluded that, on poor sites in SW Oregon, managing advance regeneration may be a viable alternative
to reforestation.
OSU
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48. Kramer, H. and J.H.G. Smith.
1985. Establishment of Douglas fir stands in British Columbia. Forstarchiv 56(1): 9-13.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
pruning
growth
yield
economics
wood quality
Abstract: Square
spacing trials were established NW of Haney (180 m alt.) at 0.91, 1.83, 2.74,
3.66 and 4.57 m. Growth to age 25 yr, and simulation estimates up to 100 yr are
reported. Results indicated that extra costs (incurred by thinning) of stands
closer than 4 m spacing are difficult to justify in economic terms, because the
market for Douglas fir timber grown in British Columbia is such that only
production of large timber is economically viable. The quality of timber from
trees grown at wide spacing without thinning is acceptable in relation to
Canadian requirements, and could be improved if wide spacing were combined with
pruning. It is recommended that close spacings be used only if availability of
land is limited or demand for biomass is very strong.
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Link
49. Little, S.N. 1983. Weibull diameter distributions for mixed stands of western
conifers. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 13(1): 85-88.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
Abstract: The
three-parameter Wiebull function was tested as a model for the diam.
distributions of mixed stands of western hemlock and Douglas-fir in Oregon. Weibull distributions estimated by maximum likelihood
(MLE) fitted 80 of 83 observed diameter distributions at alpha =0.20 level of
significance. Weibull parameter prediction equations were developed by
regressing characteristics of 42 stands against MLE of the parameters. The Weibull
diameter distributions predicted from stand age, mean diam., mean ht., and
stand density fitted 39 of 41 observed distributions in the test group at the
alpha =0.20 level of significance. These results compared favourably with those
found for various forest types by other authors.
OSU
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50. Livingston, N.J. and T.A. Black. 1987a. Stomatal characteristics and
transpiration of three species of conifer seedlings planted on a high elevation
south-facing clear-cut. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 17(10): 1273-1282.
Keywords: planting operations
tree physiology
Abstract:
One-yr-old containerized seedlings of Douglas fir, western hemlock and Abies
amabilis were planted in spring 1981-82 with various shade and irrigation
treatments on a 30 degrees S.-facing slope at 1150 m alt. on Mt. Arrowsmith, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Stomatal responses to environmental and physiological
variables were measured for 2 yr. Responses of stomatal conductance to global
solar irradiance, air temp., changes in turgor and soil water potentials, and
changes in vapour pressure deficit did not differ between years or between
planting dates for any species. A simple multiplicative boundary-line model was
developed to describe the variability in stomatal conductance and to estimate
daily seedling transpiration.
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51. Livingston, N.J. and T.A. Black. 1987b. Water stress and survival of three
species of conifer seedlings planted on a high elevation south-facing
clear-cut. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 17(9): 1115-1123.
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand protection
tree physiology
tree/stand health
Abstract: Container-grown
seedlings (1+0) of Douglas fir, western hemlock and Abies amabilis were planted
in spring 1981 and 1982 at 1150 m alt. on a 30 degrees S.-facing slope on Mt. Arrowsmith, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Treatments at planting included
inclining seedlings to the SW (thus shading the root collar with the foliage)
and provision of shade cards and/or irrigation. Control seedlings
received no treatment. Seasonal and diurnal courses of twig xylem water
potential, turgor potential and osmotic potential were measured and the
relation between transpiration and soil water potential was determined.
Seedling survival was recorded in April 1982-84. Douglas fir seedlings showed a
high degree of drought tolerance by considerable osmotic adjustment that
enabled seedlings to maintain turgor throughout the growing season. Douglas fir
seedlings thus survived severe drought and maintained daily transpiration rates
that were never less than 50% of those of irrigated seedlings. Transpiration
rates were reduced, however, on days of high vapour pressure deficits because
of stomatal closure. Western hemlock and, especially, A
amabilis lacked both stress avoidance and stress tolerance mechanisms and
consequently suffered high mortality. In April 1984, untreated Douglas fir
seedlings had 72-82% survival, while treated seedlings had 81-95% survival.
Shade cards and/or irrigation increased survival of western hemlock and A.
amabilis, but not to the rates shown by Douglas fir.
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52. Lopushinsky, W. 1986. Effect of jellyrolling and acclimatization on survival and height
growth of conifer seedlings. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service
Research-Note PNW-RN-438. 14 p.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
tree/stand health
tree physiology
Abstract:
Jellyrolling is a preplanting treatment that involves dipping roots of
seedlings in a vermiculite/water slurry and wrapping
the roots in wet burlap to form a roll. Studies were made at 14 sites in Oregon and Washington during 1984 using bare root seedlings of Pinus ponderosa,
P. contorta or Pseudotsuga menziesii. Results showed that there was no
advantage in survival, ht. growth or moisture stress from jellyrolling or
acclimatizing (storage in a tent or shed at ambient temp. for 24 h before
planting) seedlings rather than dipping roots in a peat
moss/water slurry at the planting site.
OSU
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53. Lopushinsky, W. and T.A. Max.
1990. Effect of soil temperature on root and shoot growth and on budburst
timing in conifer seedling transplants. New-Forests 4(2): 107-124.
Keywords: planting operations
tree morphology
tree phenology
tree physiology
Abstract: Results
are presented of studies of tree seedling morphological responses to a wide
range (0-30 degrees C) of soil temperatures and the effects of soil temperature
on needle water potential and stomatal conductance in ponderosa pine (P.
ponderosa). Bare-root 2-year-old seedlings from high-altitude seed sources in
the Cascade
Mountains (Washington and Oregon states) were used for the morphological study. Root growth
in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis),
noble fir (Abies procera), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and ponderosa pine
began when soil temperature exceeded 5 degrees C. Root growth increased rapidly
after 10 degrees C and attained maximum values at 20 degrees C. At 30 degrees
C, no root growth occurred in the firs; in the pines, root growth was 30 to 39%
of maximum. Maximum shoot growth also occurred at 20 degrees C. In ponderosa
pine, height growth of seedlings from a high-altitude source was unaffected by
cold soil, but in low-altitude seedlings it was reduced. Budburst in Douglas
fir and the pines was delayed up to 11 days by cold soil, whereas in silver fir
and noble fir, it was only slightly delayed. Prior to new root growth in
ponderosa pine, xylem pressure potentials and stomatal conductances during the
afternoon indicated reduced stomatal opening at all soil temperatures, whereas
23 days later, stomata were open to a greater degree when temperatures exceeded
10 degrees C. Implications of these results are briefly discussed: although
root growth was initiated at soil temperatures of 5 degrees C, this does not
imply that seedlings should not be transplanted until soils reach that
temperature.
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54. Maher, T.F. 1990. Damage appraisal and pheromone
trapping studies for the black army cutworm in British Columbia. B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report
117. iv + 41 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
tree/stand protection
tree/stand health
growth
Abstract:
Actebia fennica [Dissimactebia fennica] have damaged Picea spp., Pinus
contorta, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix occidentalis and Populus tremuloides in
recently planted stands in British
Columbia.
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Link
55. Malavasi, U.C. and D.A. Perry. 1993. Genetic variation in
competitive ability of some shade-tolerant and shade-intolerant Pacific Coast
(USA) conifers. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 56(1-4): 69-81.
Keywords: planting
operations
genetic relationships
growth
Abstract:
Variability in growth response to stocking density and neighbour composition
was compared in Oregon among half-sibling families of four tree species
representing two pairs of shade-tolerant (ST) and shade-intolerant (SI)
species, each pair from the same life zone. The hypothesis was that the wider
regeneration niche of ST species, which can become established both in
disturbed areas and within closed forests, would produce greater genetic variability
among families than occurs in SI species, which establish primarily in
disturbed areas. Families of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla - ST), coastal
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii - SI) and Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis
- ST) varied in their responses to stocking density, but those of noble fir (A.
procera - SI) did not. As hypothesized, the ST species were significantly more
variable than SI ones, a result consistent with electrophoretic studies of ST
and SI plants and supportive of the hypothesis that at least a portion of
genetic variability contained within populations represents adaptation to
variable environments.
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56. Marshall,
P.L. 1988. A decision analytic approach to silvicultural
investment decisions. Forest-Economics-and-Policy-Analysis-Research-Unit,
University-of-British-Columbia Working-Paper 110. 28
p.
Keywords: planting
operations
thinning
precommercial thinning
economics
growth
Abstract:
A brief review of the literature is presented on methods for achieving optimal
silvicultural decisions. The methods are generally computationally cumbersome
and difficult to convert to simpler approximations required for most
silvicultural decisions. An alternative method is presented and illustrated
with two examples. The method involves a simple decision analytic structure.
Projections were made for pure coastal Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii for
several treatments using three previously published growth models. Present Net Worth (PNW) was used as the criterion for choosing the
treatment option and rotation age. The first example involved an initial
planting density decision. Three planting densities were considered, viz. (1)
2500, (2) 1100 or (3) 750 seedlings/ha. The second example involved the
decision to thin a 15-yr-old stand to a spacing
similar to that produced by (1). The options were: (a) no treatment; (b) thin
to 1100 stems/ha; and (c) thin to 500 stems/ha. The best strategy depended on
which growth model was used. The study showed that a simplified decision
analytic approach is a useful method to evaluate a decision, when aided by
several growth models.
OSU
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Link
57. Marshall,
P.L. 1989. The economic value of additional information about
treatment-response information for coastal Douglas-fir. Forest-Economics-and-Policy-Analysis-Research-Unit,
University-of-British-Columbia Working-Paper 121. 39
p.
Keywords: planting
operations
thinning
precommercial thinning
economics
growth
Abstract:
A simple decision analytic approach was applied to initial planting
density and precommercial spacing decisions for coastal Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) across a range of sites in British
Columbia. The range of
biological response was represented by the output from 3 growth and yield
models. Recent production costs and product values were applied to obtain value
per hectare after delivery of logs to the mill. Future costs and revenues were
discounted at 4, 6 and 8%. The best decisions from each growth model are
presented by scenario. Limitations of the analysis and managerial implications
are discussed.
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Link
58. McKay, H.M. and A.D. Milner. 2000. Species and seasonal
variability in the sensitivity of seedling conifer roots to drying and rough
handling. Forestry-Oxford 73(3): 259-270.
Keywords: planting
operations
tree physiology
tree/stand health
tree phenology
Abstract:
The ability of the fine root system of 2-year-old bare-rooted planting
stock of Picea sitchensis of Queen Charlotte Islands (British Columbia,
Canada), Oregon and Alaskan (USA) provenances, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Larix
kaempferi and Pinus sylvestris to withstand standard drying and rough handling
treatments was tested at regular intervals from September 1990 until April
1991, at a nursery in NE England. Details are given of nursery treatments
(sowing in spring 1989; undercutting in year 2 in June-mid-August, depending on
species, and wrenching at 2-wk intervals until mid-October; and lifting at 2-wk
intervals from September-November 1990 to April 1991). Electrolyte leakage was
used to quantify the damage to the fine roots. Stressed seedlings had
significantly greater leakage values than untreated seedlings and dried
seedlings had significantly greater leakage values than roughly handled
seedlings, but the responses varied with species and lifting date. After
drying, leakage values increased in the order P. sitchensis (Oregon
and Queen Charlotte Islands), P. sylvestris, L.
kaempferi, P. sitchensis (Alaskan), P. menziesii.
Leakage values after rough handling increased in the order P. sitchensis
(Alaskan and Queen Charlotte islands), L. kaempferi, P.
sitchensis (Oregon), P.
sylvestris, P. menziesii. Leakage values were greatest
in early September. During September and October there was a rapid downward
trend in leakage. From December to February, leakage values decreased very
slowly. In March leakage values of untreated and roughly handled seedlings
increased slightly but decreased further in dried seedlings. These results
indicate that great care must be taken during autumn planting to protect
bare-rooted seedlings, particularly P. menziesii, from drying and to a lesser
extent rough handling. Fine root leakage values following drying and rough
handling had a significant linear relationship with the logarithm of the number
of days required for the terminal bud to burst.
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59. Miller, R.E., R.E. Bigley and S. Webster. 1993a. Early development of matched planted and naturally
regenerated Douglas-fir stands after slash burning in the Cascade
Range. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 8(1): 5-10.
Keywords: planting
operations
growth
yield
Abstract:
Comparisons were made of matched planted and naturally regenerated plots
in 35- to 38-yr-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) stands
at seven locations in western Washington
and Oregon.
The total number of live stems was similar in both stand types, but stands
planted to Douglas fir averaged 26 more live stems/acre of Douglas fir and 39
fewer stems/acre of other conifers than did naturally regenerated stands.
Despite an average 2 yr delay in planting after burning, dominant Douglas fir
in planted stands average 3 fewer years than natural regeneration to attain
breast height after burning. Volume of all live trees (1.6 in. diameter at
breast height (d.b.h.) and larger) and of Douglas
fir averaged 40% greater on planted plots. Volume of live
conifers 7.6 in. d.b.h. and greater averaged 41% more on planted plots than on
naturally regenerated plots (2977 vs. 2118 ftsuperscript 3/acre).
Differences that developed on these plots were probably less than differences
that would be shown by plantations being established today with prompt
planting, and improved nursery stock and planting methods.
OSU
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60. Miller, R.E., D.L. Reukema and H.W. Anderson. 2004. Tree growth
and soil relations at the 1925 Wind River
spacing test in coast Douglas-fir. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service
Research-Paper PNW-RP-558. iii + 41 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
growth
soil properties
Abstract:
The 1925 Wind River (Washington, USA) spacing test is the earliest field trial
seeking to determine the most appropriate spacing for planting Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii). Spacing treatments were not replicated, although
individual spacings were subsampled by 2 to 4 tree-measurement plots.
Previously, greater growth occurred at the wider spacings (10 and 12 ft) than
at the closer spacings (4, 5, 6 and 8 ft). We considered three possible
explanations: (1) close spacing eventually retarded growth, (2) soil quality
may be better in the 10- and 12-ft spacings than at closer spacings, and (3)
tree spacing and soil quality combined affected growth. To test these
explanations, we measured and mapped several site factors (topographic relief,
depth to bedrock, and soil properties), and related these factors to tree and
stand growth. We infer from the strong correlation between spacing and soil
variables that the influence of soil and spacing cannot be separated;
differences in soil depth and available water capacity confound spacing effects
and vice versa. Because soils in the wider spacings were generally deeper and
had more available water capacity than do soils in the closer spacings, we
conclude that some of the superior tree growth attained in the 10- and 12-ft
spacings is due to more favourable soil conditions. Visual comparisons of tree
size, however, suggest that spacing is probably the stronger factor affecting
tree growth at this location.
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61. Miller, R.E., D.L. Reukema and J.W. Hazard. 1996. Ammonium
nitrate, urea, and biuret fertilizers increase volume growth of 57-year-old
Douglas-fir trees within a gradient of nitrogen deficiency. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service
Research-Paper PNW-RP-490. 12 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
fertilization
growth
Abstract:
Growth of dominant and codominant Pseudotsuga menziesii given 224 kg
N/ha as ammonium nitrate, urea or biuret (a slow-release N source) in a
N-deficient plantation in SW Washington was recorded over an 8-year period in
relation to distance of the trees from a strip of the plantation interplanted
with N-fixing Alnus rubra. Adjusted mean volume growth of the measured trees
was increased by 22-28% on the east side of the mixed stand centreline and by
11-14% on the west side, with no difference in response to the 3 fertilizers.
Only biuret stimulated growth within the mixed strip of the stand. Biuret had
no visible toxic effect on competing vegetation.
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Non-OSU Link
62. Miller, R.E., D.L. Reukema and T.A. Max. 1993b. Size of
Douglas-fir trees in relation to distance from a mixed red alder - Douglas-fir
stand. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 23(11): 2413-2418.
Keywords: planting
operations
growth
Abstract:
Variation in diameter, height, and stem volume of 57-year-old Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) was studied in relation to distance
of these trees from a 27 m wide strip in the same Douglas fir plantation that
had been interplanted with red alder (Alnus rubra) at a poor quality site in SW
Washington. Measurements were made in 1983. Within the interplanted strip, and
despite its greater total stand density, stem volume of dominant and codominant
Douglas fir averaged 1.27 msuperscript 3 compared with 0.55, 0.45, 0.46, or
0.49 msuperscript 3, respectively, in trees 15, 30, 45, or 60 m distant from
the edge of the mixed stand. It is concluded that some positive influence of
nitrogen-fixing red alder apparently extended about 15 m beyond the edge of the
mixed stand. It was inferred that similar ribbon-like distributions of
naturally regenerated red alder could be retained to improve growth of nearby
conifers on nitrogen-deficient sites.
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Link
63. Minore, D. 1986b. Germination, survival and
early growth of conifer seedlings in two habitat types. Pacific-Northwest-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service
Research-Paper PNW-RP-348. ii + 25 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
reproduction
tree/stand health
growth
Abstract:
Seed germination, and seedling survival and early growth of Douglas fir, western
hemlock, Abies procera and A. amabilis were studied on clear felled sites in
the A. amabilis/Achlys triphylla and A. amabilis/Vaccinium
membranaceum/Xerophyllum tenax habitat types in the McKenzie River basin,
Oregon. Severe seed predation and high surface soil temp. in
both habitat types resulted in almost total seedling mortality during the first
season when seeds had been sown on a few large, consolidated seedbeds. Seedling
survival was n.s.d. between habitat types. Survival of Douglas fir (the only
species tested) was better when seeds were sown in small scattered spots.
Habitat type and addition of forest humus did not affect survival and growth,
but shading by stumps and protection from predation using plastic berry baskets
were both beneficial. Soils from both habitats had similar colour, texture, pH
and nutrient content. In greenhouse studies, seeds of all species began
germinating earlier and continued to germinate for longer in soil from Achlys
sites than in soil from Xerophyllum sites. It is suggested that unmeasured
biological activity may have been responsible for differences in germination
activity between the two soil types.
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64. Mitchell, K.J. and J.R. Cameron. 1985. Managed stand yield tables
for coastal Douglas-fir: initial density and precommercial thinning.
Ministry-of-Forests, British-Columbia
Keywords: planting
operations
thinning
precommercial thinning
growth
yield
Abstract:
Yield tables are presented for second growth stands of Pseudotsuga
menziesii, established naturally (4440 trees/ha) or planted with 300, 500, 750,
1110 or 2500 trees/ha in British
Columbia. Separate tables
describe the development of stands thinned to 500 or 1100 stems/ha when 6 m
tall. The yield tables were produced by a biologically oriented tree and stand
simulation model (TASS) calibrated to conform with the
yield of remeasured plots.
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Non-OSU
Link
65. Murray, M.D. 1988. Growth and yield of a managed
30-year-old noble fir plantation. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service
Research-Note PNW-RN-475. 8 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
growth
yield
economics
Abstract:
Yield of noble fir (Abies procera) from a managed (urea application 15
yr after planting, precommercially thinned after 17 and 24 yr) stand in the
Doty Hills, western Washington was measured and compared with the simulated
yield of a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantation of the same age.
Noble fir produced 3450 ftsuperscript 3/acre at age 30 yr; more than half this
volume was in trees of <more or =>10 inches d.b.h. Current annual
increment during the 6 yr after the second thinning (to 300 trees/acre) was 295
ftsuperscript 3/acre. Ornamental boughs had been harvested annually for 15 yr.
Total noble fir volume was about 5% less than the simulated volume of Douglas
fir. The estimated value of noble fir after 48 yr, including sawlogs and
boughs, could exceed the value of Douglas fir at the same age grown on the same
site.
OSU Link
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66. Murray,
M.D. and R.E. Miller. 1986. Early survival and growth of planted Douglas-fir
with red alder in four mixed regimes. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper
PNW-RP-366. ii + 13 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
release
treatments
growth
stand
conditions
Abstract:
To quantify interactions between species, the survival and growth of
planted Douglas fir in association with volunteer or planted red alder (Alnus
rubra) were studied at a site on the W. side of the Cascade Range, Washington.
The planted alders were wildings taken either from a nearby site or from a
distant coastal site and interplanted in a 3-yr-old Douglas fir plantation. The
volunteer alders established during the first year and were cut when the
plantation was 3 or 7 yr old. There was no apparent advantage in using
non-local alder to reduce aboveground competition with Douglas fir. Survival of
both sources of transplanted alder was high. Retaining about 1100 plants/ha of
volunteer alders until plantation age 7 yr had no measurable effect on Douglas
fir. It is recommended that, with alder densities of <1250/ha, alder control
on most land of average or below average site quality can be delayed until 6-8
yr after planting Douglas fir. This will reduce alder sprouting and allow
simultaneous control of alder and precommercial thinning of Douglas fir.
OSU Link
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67. Nelson, E.E., M.G. McWilliams and W.G. Thies. 1994. Mortality and
growth of urea-fertilized Douglas-fir on a Phellinus weirii-infested site in Oregon.
Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 9(2): 52-56.
Keywords: planting
operations
fertilization
tree/stand protection
growth
tree/stand health
soil properties
Abstract:
Twelve plots were established in 1972 in an 11-yr-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) plantation infected with Phellinus weirii, the cause of laminated
root rot. All plots were thinned and either interplanted with red alder (Alnus
rubra) or fertilized at 5- to 10-yr intervals with urea to determine the effect
of nitrogen on tree growth and mortality caused by P. weirii, or left
untreated. Interplanted alder, however, failed to survive. Mortality was
assessed at intervals of 2 to 3 yr. Plots were inventoried (100% cruise) in
1978 and 1990. Growth over 12 yr appeared better on fertilized than
nonfertilized plots, but the difference was not significant. Mortality caused
by the preferential feeding of black bears [Ursus americanus] on the inner bark
of fertilized trees reduced the overall gain. Mortality caused by laminated
root rot did not differ significantly among treatments. Three months after the
initial application of urea at 448 kg N/ha, soil sampled to a depth of 30 cm
was higher in ammonium and nitrate forms of nitrogen on fertilized than
nonfertilized plots, but increases were not significant. Numbers of soil
bacteria were directly correlated with soil ammonium content (P = 0.1092).
Numbers of aerobic actinomycetes were inversely correlated with soil nitrate
content (P = 0.0398).
OSU
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68. Newton,
M. and E.C. Cole. 1991. Root development in planted Douglas-fir under varying
competitive stress. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 21(1): 25-31.
Keywords: planting
operations
release treatments
carbon allocation
growth
Abstract:
Roots of 5-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) on three Oregon
sites were excavated with explosives and analysed for the effects of
competition on root biomass and for planting-induced root deformities. The
plantations were in Nelder designs with graduated spacing from 300 to 15 250
cmsuperscript 2 per tree (about 17x17 to 123x123 cm spacing). Competition
treatments consisted of weed-free intraspecific competition, grass cover seeded
after 1 year of seedling growth, and red alder (Alnus rubra) interplanted 1:1
among the Douglas fir. All plantations were kept at low water stress in year 1.
The ratio of standing aboveground to belowground biomass was the same for each
competition type. Shoot:root
ratios averaged about 4:1, except in severely suppressed trees, where ratios
decreased toward 1:1 in those near death. Neither shoot:root ratio nor tree size was affected by
planting-induced root deformities such as J- or L-rooting, indicating that if
conditions are favourable for 1st-year survival and growth, root deformities at
the time of planting have no subsequent effect on root and shoot development.
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69. O'-Hara, K.L. and C.D. Oliver. 1988. Three-dimensional
representation of Douglas-fir volume growth: comparison of growth and yield
models with stand data. Forest-Science 34(3): 724-743.
Keywords: planting
operations
thinning
growth
yield
computer modeling
Abstract:
Growth and yield estimates for unthinned stands from the Douglas fir Stand
Simulator (DFSIM) and the Tree and Stand Simulator (TASS) were used to
construct graphical three-dimensional representations of Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) stand growth on site index 44 m (50 yr). The
three-dimensional models used three variables: trees per hectare, b.h. age, and
either mean tree vol. or stand vol. The TASS and DFSIM models were in agreement
over most of their common range of age and number of trees. At wider spacings
and older ages, however, the volumes predicted by the DFSIM model exceeded
those predicted by the TASS model by as much as 25%. Comparisons of these
three-dimensional models to unthinned and thinned stand data from a site of
similar quality in the Delezenne thinning trial, Washington,
found the models to be reasonably accurate representations of unthinned stand
growth. The thinned stands, however, had greater mean tree and stand volumes
than those indicated by the TASS model for unthinned stands at similar
spacings. Complete comparisons were not possible with the DFSIM model because
of its limited range of number of trees. These results suggest that the TASS
model, and to a lesser extent, the DFSIM model may be underestimating the
growth of widely spaced stands, or thinning may actually increase the growth of
thinned trees over that of trees which had always grown at the post-thinning
spacing.
OSU
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70. Omule, S.A.Y. 1987a. Comparative height growth
to age 28 for seven species in the CWHd subzone. B.C.
Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report 005. vi + 9 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
growth
Abstract:
Ht. growth curves to total age 28 yr were developed from remeasurement
of 49-tree plots planted at 8 ft spacing with (a) Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii), (b) Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), (c) western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla), (d) Abies grandis, (e) Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, (f) Thuja
plicata and (g) A. amabilis on a moist site of medium nutrient status within
the Hypermaritime Coastal Western Hemlock (CWHd) subzone on the W. coast of
Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Av. top ht. at age 28 yr were 20.2, 19.9,
16.9, 15.9, 14.3, 12.2 and 12.0 m respectively in (a)-(g), with b.h. being
reached at age 4 yr in (a), (b), (c) and (e), 5 yr in (d) and (f) and 8 yr in
(g). Growth curves were similar in shape to those published for the Pacific
Northwest and the UK.
Extrapolation of results to other sites within the CWHd should be cautious
because the study site appears to be on a unique soil type.
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71. Omule, S.A.Y. 1987b. Early growth of four species planted at three
spacings on Vancouver Island.
B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report 009.
vii + 22 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
tree/stand health
growth
yield
Abstract:
Seedling survival and 24- to 26-yr growth were measured of (a) Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), (b) western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), (c)
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and (d) Thuja plicata grown at 2.7x2.7, 3.7x3.7
and 4.6x4.6 m spacings on the W. coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia.
Initial spacing had no significant effect on survival, which was 86% in (a),
56% in (b), 87% in (c) and 91% in (d). Effects of spacing on growth and yield
were as expected (little effect on ht.; wider spacings
produced larger trees, but vol./ha was lower) in (a), but were delayed or
confounded in (b) by poor seedling survival, in (c) by weevil (Pissodes strobi)
damage and in (d) by salal (Gaultheria shallon) competition and browsing.
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72. Peterson, C.E. 1984. Fertilization of
Douglas-fir plantations in the Pacific Northwest RFNRP Cooperative. In
Proceedings IUFRO Symposium on Site and Productivity of Fast Growing
Plantations Volume 2, South African Forest Research Institute, Pretoria, South
Africa. Eds. D.C. Grey, A.P.G. Schonau and C.J. Schutz. pp. 637-645.
Keywords: planting
operations
fertilization
thinning
precommercial thinning
growth
Abstract:
Since 1975, the RFNRP cooperative has established 26 installations in
young widely spaced plantations of Douglas-fir for testing response to 224
kg-N/ha. These plantations ranged in breast-height age from 3 to 23 years, and
although response to fertilization was favorable in all Douglas-fir
plantations, those which were spaced to 1000 trees/ha responded significantly
better than plantations of 725 trees/ha, in both absolute and relative 2-year
basal area increment (msuperscript 2 ha-1 year-1). Response also appears to be
greater when fertilizer was applied 2 years after precommercial thinning, as
opposed to fertilizing and thinning at the same time. The relationship of growth
response with stocking level is discussed, as well as the timing of
fertilization relative to spacing, in young Douglas-fir plantations.
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73. Pilz, D. and R.M. Znerold. 1986. Comparison of survival
enhancement techniques for outplanting on a harsh site in the western Oregon
Cascades. Tree-Planters' Notes 37(4): 24-28.
Keywords: nursery
operations
planting operations
growth
tree/stand health
mycorrhizal response
Abstract:
Bare rooted 2+0 seedlings of Pseudotsuga menziesii survived and grew
better during the first year than container-grown 1+0 stock on a droughty site.
After 3 yr, survival still differed significantly, but height growth did not.
Shading improved survival and growth. Application of a liquid suspension of
spores of Pisolithus tinctorius was ineffective and no mycorrhizas developed
from this fungus.
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Link
74. Prescott, C.E. and L.M. Zabek. 1999. Decomposition and nitrogen
mineralization in forests of British
Columbia: effects of forest
management practices. In Proceedings:
Pacific Northwest
forest and rangeland soil organism symposium; 1998 March 17-19; Corvallis,
OR.
Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,
USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report PNW-GTR-461. Eds. R.T.
Meurisse, W.G. Ypsilantis, and C. Seybold. 124-136 pp.
Keywords: planting
operations
fertilization
soil properties
Abstract:
The productivity of most forests in the Pacific
Northwest is limited by the availability of nitrogen.
Nitrogen availability is largely controlled by the rate at which N is recycled
from organic matter, through the processes of decomposition and mineralization.
These processes are controlled by the factors that limit the activities of the
soil organisms involved, particularly temperature, moisture, and the physical
and chemical nature of the organic matter. Forest
management activities may influence each of these factors and thereby affect
rates of decomposition, N mineralization and N availability. The influences of
several common forest management activities on decomposition and N
mineralization were examined in a suite of experiments across British
Columbia, Canada.
Rates of decomposition were compared in forests and adjacent clear felled areas
at 22 sites, and rates were either the same or slower in the felled areas.
Several sites had additional silvicultural treatments that provide a range of
either opening size or removal intensity. Decomposition rates were not
influenced by opening size, but rates of net N mineralization and nitrification
were increased in openings greater than 0.1 ha. Tree species influences N
mineralization in the forest floor, with highest rates occurring in Douglas-fir
and broadleaf species and lowest rates in cedar and pines. The decomposition rates of foliar litters was best
predicted by its lignin concentration. The influence of managing to maintain a
component of broadleaf species was examined in decomposition experiments with
pure and mixed litter of aspen and spruce, Douglas-fir and alder, and lodgepole
pine, Douglas-fir and paper birch. There was no effect of mixing litters on their
rates of decomposition. Likewise, N fertilization had no effect on
decomposition rates in trials in coastal Douglas-fir and aspen.
OSU Link
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75. Puettmann, K.J., D.W. Hann and D.E. Hibbs. 1993. Evaluation of the
size-density relationships for pure red alder and Douglas-fir stands.
Forest-Science 39(1): 7-27.
Keywords: planting
operations
growth
tree/stand health
Abstract:
Using previously published data, size-density relations were developed
for pure red alder (Alnus rubra) and pure Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
stands in Oregon,
Washington
and British
Columbia, using quadratic
mean diameter of the stand as the tree-size variable. The resulting
self-thinning or maximum size-density line for red alder had a steeper slope
(-0.64) than that for Douglas fir (-0.52). The assumption of a common slope for
all species is, therefore, not supported by this study. For red alder, the shape
of the size-density trajectory and the height of the maximum size-density line
were not influenced by initial density or stand origin. Red alder and Douglas
fir mortality started at a relative density of 44% and 58%, respectively.
OSU
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76. Randall, W. and G.R. Johnson. 1998. The impact of environment and
nursery on survival and early growth of Douglas-fir, noble fir, and white pine
- a case study. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 13(4): 137-143.
Keywords: nursery
operations
planting operations
tree/stand protection
growth
tree/stand health
Abstract:
Survival and third-year height were examined on 2383 reforestation
units in Cascade Range of western Oregon,
USA, from 1983
to 1994, to determine which factors affect reforestation success. The three
species examined made up 92% of the total trees planted in the region. Survival
of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) varied by as much as 20% from year to
year. The most significant factor affecting reforestation success was the
nursery that provided the seedlings. Nursery affected both survival and height
of Douglas fir and height for noble fir (Abies procera) and white pine (Pinus
monticola). No nursery was best for all species. Other factors that were
important for all three species were the administrative unit where the
seedlings were planted, initial plant height, aspect, and length of storage
prior to planting. Other significant factors that were important for Douglas
fir were seed origin, planting month, protection, stock type, and aspect. For
noble fir, other important factors were planting month and stock type; for
white pine, the other important factor was slope. Altitude of the seed source
and the planting unit affected Douglas fir survival and height but did not
affect the other two species. This supports the smaller altitudinal bands for
Douglas fir compared with noble fir and white pine.
OSU
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77. Reeb, D. 1985. Influence of spacing and artificial
pruning on the production of clearwood of Douglas-fir. Forestry-Abstracts
46(10): 640.
Keywords: planting
operations
pruning
wood quality
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Link
78. Reukema, D.L. and J.H.G. Smith. 1987. Development over 25 years of
Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar planted at various spacings
on a very good site in British
Columbia. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PNW-RP-381.
ii + 46 p.
Keywords: planting
operations
pruning
growth
yield
tree morphology
Abstract:
Five spacing trials were established during 1957-67 at the University of British Columbia Research Forest, covering a range of
spacings from 1 to 5 m and of experimental designs (49-tree-plot, 0.2-ha plot,
rectangularity, Nelder and variable block trials). Results showed that initial
spacing is among the most important factors influencing stem and crown
development, and stand growth and yield for Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western redcedar (Thuja
plicata). Top heights were initially taller at closer spacings, but are now
similar at all spacings. Av. ht. is now shorter at close spacing. Decreases in
heights to dead and live crowns and increases in diam. of lower stem, taper and
crown size occurred as spacing increased. B.a. and
stand vol. increased as spacing decreased until onset of density-related
mortality. It is concluded that initial wide spacings with rectangularities up
to 2:1 (e.g. 6x3 m) will result in efficient production of large trees of high
value and satisfactory quality. Pruning of widely spaced trees to enhance lower
stem quality is strongly recommended.
OSU Link
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79. Roth, B.E. and M. Newton. 1996a. Role of Lammas
growth in recovery of Douglas-fir seedlings from deer browsing, as influenced
by weed control, fertilization, and seed source.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 26(6): 936-944.
Keywords: planting
operations
release treatments
chemical release
fertilization
tree/stand protection
growth
tree/stand health
Abstract:
This study examined the effects of weed control, nitrogen fertilizer,
and seed source on Lammas growth (second flushing) in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) seedlings on 3 sites in the Oregon
Coast
Range.
It also assessed the occurrence of deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus)
browsing as related to these silvicultural treatments and examined the role of
Lammas growth in seedling recovery and escape from deer browsing. Seedlings
(averaging 54 cm tall, 6 mm diameter at 15 cm above ground) were planted in
February 1992, and measured at the time of planting and in autumn 1992 and
1993. Complete weed control with hexazinone (annual applications + spot
treatments as necessary) significantly increased the occurrence of Lammas
growth. Nitrogen fertilizer (220 kg/ha urea) decreased Lammas growth
significantly, at least in part by favouring weed growth. Lammas growth was not
influenced by seed source (genetically improved from a seed orchard or local
wild stock). The increased Lammas growth associated with weed control mediated
the effects of deer browsing. Although multiple-year browsing occurred more
commonly on weeded than unweeded seedlings, after two growing seasons weeded
seedlings that were repeatedly browsed were twice as large as unbrowsed,
unweeded seedlings. On one site, stock of wild origin was more heavily browsed
than that from a seed orchard.
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Link
80. Roth, B.E. and M. Newton. 1996b. Survival and
growth of Douglas-fir relating to weeding, fertilization, and seed source.
Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 11(2): 62-69.
Keywords: planting
operations
fertilization
release treatments
chemical release
growth
tree physiology
tree morphology
tree/stand health
Abstract:
The goal of this study was to quantitatively evaluate the individual
and interactive effects of weed control, nitrogen fertilizer, and seed source
on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) survival and growth in plantations on a
range of sites and growing conditions in western Oregon.
Weed control with hexazinone (broadcast application after planting) was the
dominant factor influencing seedling survival and growth and accounted for 49%
of the explained variation in seedling volume after 2 years. Nitrogen
fertilizer (urea) had no effect when used in conjunction with weed control and
a negative effect when used without weed control. Seedlings from a seed orchard
source were significantly larger in diameter and volume than those from a wild
local source after two growing seasons, but second-year heights were similar
for the two seedling types. Initial seedling size was positively correlated
with growth rate.
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81. Scott, W., R. Meade, R. Leon, D.
Hyink and R. Miller. 1998. Planting density and tree-size relations in coast
Douglas-fir. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 28(1): 74-78.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
Abstract: Test plantations
were established in western Washington and Oregon to compare tree growth at six initial planting densities
ranging from 300 to 2960 trees/ha. A size-density relation was visually
apparent 3 to 4 years after planting. Inventory data collected in 1990 from the
oldest 11 trials (5 or 6 years after planting, 10 in Washington, one in Oregon)
showed that initial spacing strongly influenced early growth of coast Douglas
fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii). Average height and diameter at
breast height were progressively larger as planting density increased; at the
widest spacing (lowest stand density), average height was 75% and average
diameter at breast height was 67% of that at the closest spacing. Trees planted
at 2960 trees/ha attained breast height (1.3 m) 2 years earlier than trees
planted at a density of 300/ha. This finding has practical significance to
current efforts to achieve early establishment of plantations.
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82. Shainsky, L.J., M. Newton and
S.R. Radosevich. 1992. Effects of intra- and inter-specific competition on root
and shoot biomass of young Douglas-fir and red alder.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 22(1): 101-110.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
tree
morphology
carbon
allocation
tree
physiology
Abstract: Two-year-old
seedlings of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and red alder (Alnus rubra)
were planted in Oregon in 1985 at densities of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 trees/msuperscript
2 in a two-way density matrix composed of 5 monoculture densities and 25
mixtures of all possible pairwise combinations of monoculture densities. Roots
and shoots were harvested after the fourth growing season. Response surfaces
for root, shoot and total biomass per tree were generated within the matrix.
Regression analysis quantified the effect of each species' density on biomass
components. Alder overtopped the Douglas fir in all mixed stands. Alder density
influenced the root and shoot biomass of both species more than Douglas fir
density did, the greatest reduction in root biomass of Douglas fir taking place
at an alder density of <less or =>1 tree/msuperscript 2. Douglas fir
density interacted with red alder density to influence all biomass components.
Douglas fir density effects were inconsistently significant across alder
densities. While increasing the density of each species reduced root and shoot
biomass per tree, allocation of biomass to roots and shoot was not affected by
competition, nor were the allometric equations relating biomass to stem
diameter and stem volume index. Foliar concentrations of N and P in the Douglas
fir understorey are reported.
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83. Shainsky, L.J. and S.R.
Radosevich. 1991. Analysis of yield-density relationships in experimental
stands of Douglas-fir and red alder seedlings. Forest-Science 37(2): 574-592.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
Abstract:
Seedlings of red alder (Alnus rubra) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
were planted into a two-species density matrix composed of five monoculture
densities and mixed stands with all possible pairwise combinations of the
monoculture densities. The experiment was set up in the Willamette Valley,
Oregon, in January 1985. Regression equations were fitted to the response of
mean tree stem volume to the two species' densities generated in this matrix.
Regression coefficients quantifying the intensity of competition indicated that
alder density had approximately twice the effect of Douglas fir density on
individual tree stem volume of both species. The densities of the two species
had a multiplicative effect on mean tree stem volume. In addition, the effects
of alder and Douglas fir densities on tree size were interdependent. The
effects of alder density on stem volume varied with Douglas fir density and
declined as Douglas fir density increased. Similarly, the effects of Douglas
fir density on stem volume varied with alder density. The interdependency of
the two species' densities resulted in an unusual pattern in which Douglas fir
individual stem volume increased as Douglas fir density increased at high
densities of alder.
OSU
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84. Staudhammer, C. and V. LeMay. 2000. Height prediction
equations using diameter and stand density measures. Forestry-Chronicle 76(2):
303-309.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
Abstract: Height
equations for western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), western red cedar (Thuja
plicata), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and alder (Alnus rubra and Alnus
tenuifolia) in the Coastal Western Hemlock zone of southwestern British Columbia were fitted using dbh as the predictor variable. A simple,
non-linear equation gave very similar results to the Weibull distribution,
except for hemlock, which was better modelled using the more flexible Weibull
distribution function. Introducing stand density variables into the base
equations resulted in increased accuracy for predicting heights of alder.
Smaller improvements were found for Douglas-fir, cedar, and hemlock.
OSU
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85. Stonecypher, R.W., R.F. Piesch,
G.G. Helland, J.G. Chapman and H.J. Reno. 1996. Results from genetic tests of
selected parents of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) in an applied tree improvement program.
Forest-Science-Monograph (32): 35.
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
planting
operations
growth
tree
phenology
genetic
relationships
Abstract: Results
from genetic tests, and genotype x environment interaction studies in six
low-elevation breeding zones of Weyerhaeuser Company's Western Washington and Oregon Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) tree
improvement programme are summarized. Phenotypic selection in natural stands
resulted in a 5% improvement in juvenile height over nonselect seed lots.
Comparisons with nonselect sources, of offspring from parents in the top 50%
performers in tests, indicated a 10% increase for the same trait. Seed produced
in a 50% rogued seed orchard is thus expected to provide improved planting
stock with a gain of 10% in juvenile height growth. Several select parents are
producing offspring that are consistently performing in excess of 10% over
nonselects. Estimates of breeding zone, breeding zone by location, and family
by location interaction effects are small relative to family and planting
location effects. Tests of families established on environmentally diverse
sites indicate a striking lack of large family by planting location
interaction. In tests showing statistically significant interactions, such
interactions are caused by a relatively small number of families. Earlier
budbreak and a higher spring frost susceptibility of Oregon sources established on Washington sites were observed. It is concluded that allocation and
utilization of select families within Weyerhaeuser's Oregon and Washington ownership should not be constrained by the currently
defined breeding zone boundaries, but based on parental performance and
stability for growth and adaptive traits in general. It is suggested that the
necessity for maintaining separate breeding zones, within Washington and Oregon, in subsequent cycles of recurrent selection is
questionable. Average individual tree heritability, from 65 6-parent
disconnected diallels, is 0.13 for age 6 and age 8 height.
Dominance genetic variance is estimated to be one-half that of additive genetic
variance for the same traits.
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86. Strand, R.F. and D.S. DeBell. 1981. Growth response to
fertilization in relation to stocking levels of Douglas-fir. In Proceedings: Forest Fertilization Conference, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA. Eds. S.P. Gessel,
R.M. Kenady and W.A. Atkinson. pp. 102-106.
Keywords: planting operations
fertilization
thinning
growth
Abstract: Growing
stock levels affect the response of Douglas-fir stands to applications of
nitrogen fertilizer. Response is maximum
at intermediate stocking levels, and is less at higher or lower levels of stand
density. Nitrogen fertilization accelerates growth and therefore increases the
rate of buildup of stand density. Thinnings will be required to reduce stocking
to appropriate levels if good responses to repeated nitrogen applications
throughout a rotation are to be obtained.
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87. Sullivan, T.P. and D.S. Sullivan.
1985. Operational direct seeding of Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine with
alternative foods in British Columbia. B.C.-Ministry-of-Forests
Research-Note 97. vi
+ 16 p.
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand
protection
tree/stand
health
economics
reproduction
Abstract: Direct
sowing of clear-felled areas in temperate coniferous forests of N. America has often been hampered because of seed predation by rodents
and birds. In trials in British Columbia, seed predation was considerably
reduced when Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seed was mixed with sunflower
seed (7:1 sunflower to Douglas fir) or with sunflower seed and oat kernals
(5:2:1 sunflower/oats/Douglas fir) or when lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) seed
was mixed with sunflower seed (2:1 sunflower to pine). The economics of
providing alternative food for the predators and operational considerations are
discussed.
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88. Tait, D.E. 1988. The dynamics of
stand development: a general stand model applied to Douglas-fir.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 18(6): 696-702.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
growth
tree/stand
health
Abstract: A
linked pair of hypotheses are developed that represent causal explanations for
plant growth and stand mortality for an even-aged stand. The pair of dynamic
equations lead to a
four-parameter Douglas fir simulation model that relates the development of
stand volume and density to site quality, initial stocking density and
alternative thinning regimes. The mortality hypothesis, a dynamic hypothesis
related to stand density and stand growth, generates the -superscript 3/2 power
law as an equilibrium solution.
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89. Tarrant, R.F., B.T. Bormann, D.S.
DeBell and W.A. Atkinson. 1983. Managing red alder in the Douglas-fir region:
some possibilities. Journal-of-Forestry 81(12): 787-792.
Keywords: planting operations
fertilization
yield
economics
Abstract: An
economic comparison of 3 systems for growing Alnus rubra (rotations of 13,20
and 28 yr) in the Pacific Northwest USA, with or without alternating rotations
(45 yr) of Douglas fir, and 2 continuous systems for growing Douglas fir (45-yr
rotations with or without treatment with N fertilizer). Anticipated stand
yield, and costs of site preparation, planting, fertilization etc. were used to
estimate m.a.i. (vol.), present net worth and internal rate of return. The 2
most profitable systems were Douglas fir, thinned and treated with fertilizer
twice in 45 yr (present net worth $623/acre) and red alder grown to sawlog size
(28 yr) alternating with Douglas fir thinned twice in 45 yr (present net worth
$578/acre). The least profitable system was red alder grown continuously in 13
yr rotations (present net worth -$251/acre). Alternate cropping of red alder
and Douglas fir or continuous red alder production would be as profitable as
growing Douglas fir alone if there were increases in real interest rate, alder
stumpage price, or the cost of N fertilizer, or alder sawlog rotation length
decreased.
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90. Tedder, P.L. 1981. Reforestation
of steep sites with skeletal soils - is it economically realistic? In
Reforestation-of-skeletal-soils. Eds. S.D. Hobbs and O.T. Helgerson, Forest Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. pp. 105-108.
Keywords: planting operations
economics
Abstract: The
lack of data concerning volume yields from steep sites with skeletal soils
precludes any substantive analysis. However, with projections of moderate
increases in real stumpage prices of Douglas-fir, regeneration of Sites IV and
below indicate that a rate of return less than five percent (real) will be
realized.
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91. Thies, W.G. and R.N. Sturrock.
1995. Laminated root rot in Western North America. Pacific Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service General
Technical Report GTR-PNW-349. iv + 32 pp. p.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
mechanical
preparation
fertilization
thinning
tree/stand
protection
tree/stand health
Abstract:
Laminated root rot, caused by Phellinus weirii, is a serious root disease
affecting Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and other commercially important
species of conifers in northwestern North America. This report gives an overview of the disease as it occurs
in the Pacific
Northwest in Canada and the USA. Information on recognizing crown symptoms and signs of
the disease is presented. The disease cycle of laminated root rot, from
initiation to intensification and distribution within infected stands, is
described. Finally, disease management strategies during stand development and
at stand regeneration are discussed. Features on the nomenclature of the fungus
and on its management by silvicultural and mechanical approaches also are
included.
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92. Weber, C.D., Jr. 1983. Height
growth patterns in a juvenile Douglas-fir stand, effects of planting site,
microtopography and lammas
occurrence. Forestry-Abstracts 44(11): 701.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
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93. Wilson, J. 2004. Vulnerability to
wind damage in managed landscapes of the coastal Pacific Northwest. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 191(1/3): 341-351.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
tree/stand
protection
computer
modeling
tree/stand
health
Abstract: Managed
forested landscapes in the coastal Pacific Northwest follow a pattern of transition from dominance by naturally
regenerated second growth to dominance by planted stands. This transition
should have dramatic influence on many characteristics of these landscapes and
the larger region, including susceptibility to wind damage. In this paper,
inventory and spatial information from an example landscape are integrated
using the Landscape Management System to produce alternative management
scenarios and evaluate the projections using a wind damage vulnerability rating
system. Planted Douglas-fir stands tend to develop higher height to diameter
ratios in the dominant trees, are thinned more often, and tend to have more
exposed windward edges; characteristics which increase susceptibility to wind
damage. In this analysis, the increasing vulnerability factors are mostly
compensated for by the reduced rotation lengths expected in the plantations.
The pattern of transition in managed landscapes generates an associated pattern
of vulnerability to wind damage. Homogeneously and heterogeneously aged
landscapes have distinct patterns of vulnerability. These differences could be
harnessed to enhance the particular goals associated with managing individual
ownerships.
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94. Wilson, J.S. and P.J. Baker. 2001. Flexibility in forest
management: managing uncertainty in Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific Northwest. Forest-Ecology-and-Management 145(3): 219-227.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
yield
tree
morphology
economics
tree/stand
health
Abstract: Long
planning horizons generate substantial uncertainty in forest management, making
management flexibility, the ability to choose between multiple options or
opportunities, a desirable attribute of managed forests. Flexibility in forest
management reflects both the relative rigidity of intervention requirements and
the potential range of development pathways for a stand. The wind stability of Pacific Northwest Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations is used to
demonstrate the concept of management flexibility. Dense Douglas-fir
plantations develop high height to diameter ratios in the dominant trees making
them unstable and prone to wind damage. The management of these plantations is
inflexible, because without early and timely thinning, the stands do not
contain stable trees that could be expected to survive long rotations or late
thinnings. A combination of reduced planting densities and site-specific
management reduces both the necessity and rigidity of intervention requirements
(e.g., thinning) and expands the number of potential developmental pathways for
these stands. The cost of greater management flexibility is reduced efficiency
of wood volume production; however, greater adaptability to changing markets,
labour conditions, and management objectives may be more important for many
forest owners. While this approach to management is complex, it frees owners
and managers from rigid management requirements and allows for a wider range of
future stand conditions.
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95. Wilson, J.S. and C.D. Oliver. 2000. Stability and density
management in Douglas-fir plantations. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research
30(6): 910-920.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
tree/stand
protection
tree
morphology
tree/stand
health
Abstract: Limited
tree size variation in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantations in
coastal Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia makes them susceptible to developing high height to
diameter ratios (H/D) in the dominant trees. The H/D of a tree is a relative
measure of stability under wind and snow loads. Experimental plot data from
three large studies were used to evaluate the impact of initial planting
densities and thinning on plantation H/D values. The H/D predictions from the
experimental plot data match spacing trial results closely but are
substantially different from distance-independent growth model predictions. The
results suggest that plantation H/D values can be lowered and stability
promoted through reduced planting densities or early thinning; however, later
thinnings may not be effective in promoting stability, since they do not appear
to lower H/D values. Higher initial planting densities shorten the time period
during which thinning can be expected to effectively lower future H/D values.
Time-sensitive thinning requirements in dense plantations make their management
inflexible. The flexibility with which a stand can be managed describes the
rigidity of intervention requirements and/or potential range of stand
development pathways.
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96. Woodruff, D.R., B.J. Bond, G.A.
Ritchie and W. Scott. 2002. Effects of stand density on the growth of young
Douglas-fir trees. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 32(3): 420-427.
Keywords: planting operations
growth
photosynthesis
tree
physiology
Abstract: The
objectives of this study were (i) to provide further evidence of a positive
correlation of stand density with early growth of coastal Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco var. menziesii); (ii) to determine when
after planting the positive growth response occurs and how long it lasts; and
(iii) to use stable isotopes of carbon to test whether the mechanism(s)
responsible for the positive growth response to density are related to
variables affecting photosynthesis, such as nutrient or moisture availability.
We measured annual height (h) and diameter (d) growth (retrospectively) of 8-
and 12-year-old trees in initial planting densities of 300, 1360, and 2960
trees/ha. Both height and diameter growth increased with density through the
fifth year after planting and decreased with density by year 7. Diameter
squared x height (d2h) was used as a volume index to assess increase in tree
volume. Second-year increase in d2h for the high-density treatments was 300% of
that in the low-density treatments. The delta 13C values of wood cellulose from
annual rings of the second and third years after planting were not
significantly different among densities, suggesting either (i) no significant differences in the effects of water
availability, nutrient availability, or source air on photosynthesis in the
three density treatments or (ii) differences that produced no net effect on
delta 13C.
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97. Woods, J.H., D. Kolotelo and A.D.
Yanchuk. 1995. Early selection of coastal Douglas-fir in a farm-field test
environment. Silvae-Genetica 44(4): 178-186.
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
planting
operations
site
preparation
mechanical
preparation
release
treatments
chemical
release
manual
release
genetic
relationships
wood
quality
growth
Abstract:
Farm-field tests are progeny tests established using intensive site
preparation, close spacing and nearly complete weed control. Early growth and
wood density of coastal Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in a farm-field
environment for up to 7 years from seed were compared with stem volume and wood
density from 11 field sites at age 13 (20-25 of commercial rotation). The
farm-field test material comprised 70 full-sib families from six 6-tree
half-diallels (some reciprocals and missing crosses) without selfs. Parent trees
were from natural stand selections in the coastal area of British Columbia, Canada, and the farm-field test was conducted on southern Vancouver Island. Family heritabilities were high for almost all traits in
both the farm-field and field sites. Breeding-value correlations of farm-field
heights with field stem volume at age 13 increased from a low of 0.5 for
farm-field age 1 and levelled off at about 0.7 by farm-field age 3. Farm-field
diameter with field volume age 13 breeding-value correlations were initially
lower than those for height, but increased to 0.82 by age 7. Wood density
breeding value correlations between field pilodyn assessments at age 13 and
farm-field stem sections at age 6 were 0.83. Maximum family-selection
efficiency per year (including a 5-year breeding delay), relative to direct
selection on field volume 13, reached 162% using index selection on farm-field
height and diameter at age 3. Within-family selection efficiencies per year
were highest at age 1 and declined quickly thereafter. All selection in the
farm-field test had a higher efficiency per unit time than selection in field
tests. It is concluded that correctly established farm-field tests will provide
greater per year gains in stem yield and wood density traits than field sites.
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