1. 1987. Impact of intensive forestry practices on net stand
values in
Keywords: release treatments
fertilization
thinning
yield
economics
Abstract: Yield responses
to major silvicultural treatments (regeneration
method, brushing and weeding, spacing and thinning and fertilizer use) are analysed in relation to growth and yield theory, and their
translation into operational use of treatments to increase merchantable vol. is
considered. Data from coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla) and western hemlock/Abies
amabilis stands and interior white spruce (Picea glauca), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and wet belt Douglas fir stands are used to
quantify the net present value of treatments in terms of improvement in net
stand values and merchantable vol. Potentially viable treatment options are
identified for each stand type present.
2.
Keywords: fertilization
economics
Abstract: A large
scale pilot study to determine the potential of hand fertilizing forest stands
in western
3. Atkinson, W.A. 1981. Preliminary guidelines for fertilizing less than fully stocked
stands and mixed species stands. In Conference Proceedings:
Keywords: fertilization
economics
Abstract: Foresters
engaged in selecting areas for operational fertilization rarely encounter the
fully stocked pure-species Douglas-fir stands that are studied by researchers.
Most often the question is one of establishing minimal standards for choosing
stands to fertilize. This paper offers preliminary guidelines for fertilizing
less than fully stocked stands and mixed-species stands. Results are presented
by age and site, and consist of a table showing minimal basal area stocking
required to earn a given interest rate.
4.
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
yield
wood quality
economics
Abstract: Relationships
between tree traits and tree value for lumber production were investigated. For
the purposes of estimating relative economic weights for use in multitrait selection in coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), tree height, diameter at breast height, and
branch diameter were measured on 164 trees (ages 36-66 yr) sampled from 11
intensively managed stands with a wide range of site attributes, growing
conditions, ages and stocking histories in western Washington and Oregon.
Increment cores from a subsample (92) of these trees
were assayed by X-ray densitometry to determine wood density. Bole volume was
derived by summing the log volumes of all logs from each tree. Value of lumber
recovered from each tree was determined in a separate mill study using both
visual and machine stress rated (MSR) grading rules. Multiple linear regression was used to relate tree value to the growth and
wood quality traits. Stem volume and branch diameter significantly influenced
tree value under visual grading, with relative economic weights of 0.06 dmsuperscript 3 and -5.22 cm, respectively. Wood density
significantly influenced tree value under MSR grading (relative economic
weights: 0.06 dmsuperscript 3, -6.69 cm, and 0.06 kg/msuperscript 3, respectively), where lumber strength is
measured more accurately. These regression coefficients can be used directly as
economic weights in selection indices in the
development of advanced breeding programmes for Douglas
fir.
5. Bare, B.B. 1981. Tax effects of
fertilization. In Proceedings:
Keywords: fertilization
economics
Abstract: This paper
describes the sensitivity of investment performance when fertilzization
activities are treated as expensed, capitalized, or amortized expenditures.
Current Internal Revenue Service policy favors capitalization, but pending
revenue rulings are expected to recommend amortization. The impact of these
three alternatives on after-tax cash flows is illustrated by a numerical
example for the Douglas-fir zone of the
6. Brix, H. 1993. Fertilization and thinning effect on a
Douglas-fir ecosystem at
Keywords: fertilization
thinning
growth
tree morphology
tree/stand health
carbon allocation
wood quality
tree physiology
photosynthesis
economics
Abstract:
Treatments were initiated in 1970-71 in a 24-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) near Shawnigan Lake, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, to
determine the effects of 3 intensities of thinning (removing none, one-third
and two-thirds of basal area) and 3 levels of urea fertilizer (0, 224 and 448
kg N/ha) on the growth and biology of the trees. Subsidiary experiments were
established during 1972-87 to examine the effects of high doses of urea
(672-1344 kg N/ha), ammonium nitrate as an N source instead of urea, understorey response to thinning and fertilizer, and
responses to P and S fertilizer.
7. Curtis, R.O., D.D. Marshall and
D.S. DeBell. 2004. Silvicultural
options for young-growth Douglas-fir forests: the
Keywords: thinning
commercial thinning
economics
soil properties
Abstract: This
report describes the origin, design, establishment and measurement procedures
and first results of a large long term cooperative study comparing a number of
widely different silvicultural regimes applied to
young-growth Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands managed for multiple objectives. Regimes
consist of (1) conventional clear felling followed by intermediate thinning;
(2) retention of reserve trees to create a two-aged stand; (3) small patch cuts
dispersed within a thinned matrix, repeated at approximately 15-year intervals
to create a mosaic of age classes; (4) group selection within a thinned matrix
on an approximate 15-year cycle; (5) continued thinning on an extended
rotation; and (6) an untreated control. Each of these regimes is on
operation-size units (approximately 30 to 70 acres each). A LIDAR system was
used to scan the surface of the 2 miles2 that encompass the
8. Duke, K.M., G.M. Townsend and W.A.
White. 1989. An economic analysis of fertilization and thinning effects on
Douglas-fir stands at
Keywords: fertilization
thinning
economics
computer modeling
Abstract: A
single-tree density-dependent growth model was used to project, from age 24 to
age 120 yr, 9 combinations of thinning and fertilizer application (nitrogen as
urea or ammonium nitrate) in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) near Shawnigan
Lake, British Columbia. Costs and benefits were estimated as a function of
stand diameter, and forestry investment criteria were used to evaluate each
treatment on both an incremental and a regime basis. The effect of rising real prices, and the treatment of silvicultural
costs as an initial investment or as a harvest cost were also studied.
9. El Kassaby,
Y.A. and K. Ritland. 1986. The relation of outcrossing
and contamination to reproductive phenology and
supplemental mass pollination in a Douglas-fir seed orchard. Silvae-Genetica 35(5/6): 240-244.
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
seed orchard management
tree phenology
genetic relationships
economics
reproduction
Abstract: A study
was made using allozyme markers of outcrossing and contamination rates in relation to
reproductive phenology and supplemental mass
pollination in a Douglas fir seed orchard in
10. Emmingham,
W.L., P. Oester, M. Bennett, F. Kukulka,
K. Conrad and A. Michel. 2002. Comparing short-term financial aspects of four
management options in
Keywords: thinning
commercial thinning
economics
yield
Abstract: Private
family forest owners are often more interested in comparing short-term
financial outcomes of management options, as opposed to longer time horizons
and classical economic analyses including net present value. Therefore, we
compared projected 10-year value of timber and land for four theoretical
management scenarios starting with stands ripe for thinning. The options were
(1) hold for 10 years (i.e. no thinning), (2) thin for even-age, or (3) partial
cut for uneven-age and (4) clearcut now. To simulate
the outcomes of these scenarios, we marked and measured 2-ha plots
in 10 stands typical of private forest ownerships across
11. Feller, M.C., J.P. Kimmins and K.A. Scoullar. 1983.
FORCYTE-10: calibration data and simulation of potential long-term effects of
intensive forest management on site productivity, economic performance, and
energy benefit/cost ratio. In I.U.F.R.B. Symposium
on.
Keywords: thinning
fertilization
soil properties
economics
computer modeling
Abstract: FORCYTE
(
12. Fight, R.D., N.A. Bolon and J.M. Cahill. 1993. Financial analysis of pruning
Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine in the
Keywords: pruning
economics
computer modeling
Abstract: Recent
lumber recovery studies of pruned and unpruned
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii
var. menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa) were incorporated into
computer software using lumber grade prices, growth and yield data, the cost of
pruning, and interest rates to determine the expected financial return from
pruning. Financial analyses showed that the cost of pruning at which the
investment would yield an expected 4% real rate of return was positive on sites
where individual tree growth is fairly high, pruning is done as early as
biologically possible given limitations on crown removal, and the harvest is 30
to 70 yr after pruning. The better situations in Douglas fir showed a
break-even cost of up to $21/tree and an internal rate of return exceeding 9%.
The better situations in ponderosa pine showed a break-even cost of up to
$11/tree and an internal rate of return of 7%.
13. Fight, R.D., J.M. Cahill and T.D.
Fahey. 1992. DFPRUNE users guide. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-
Keywords: pruning
economics
computer modeling
Abstract: The
DFPRUNE spreadsheet program is designed to estimate the expected financial
return from pruning coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii). It is
a significant revision of the PRUNE-SIM program. The PRUNE-SIM program was
based on the average product recovery for unpruned
logs from a single stand that received frequent light thinnings.
The DFPRUNE program incorporates new recovery information for unpruned young-growth Douglas fir and can be used to assess
the economic potential of pruning for a wide range of management regimes.
Product prices and descriptions of trees at time of pruning and at time of
harvest must be supplied by the user. The DFPRUNE program was developed for the
Lotus
14. Fight, R.D., J.M. Cahill, T.D.
Fahey and T.A. Snellgrove. 1987a. Financial
analysis of pruning coast Douglas-fir. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-
Keywords: pruning
fertilization
economics
wood quality
yield
computer modeling
Abstract: Unpruned stands of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) will yield little clear material under
current management regimes in western
15. Fight, R.D., J.M. Cahill, T.D.
Fahey and T.A. Snellgrove. 1988. A new look at
pruning coast Douglas-fir. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 3(2): 46-48.
Keywords: pruning
thinning
fertilization
economics
Abstract: A short
account of an evaluation of the financial returns of pruning coast Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii),
using new product-recovery information and computer software, and assuming
that: the analysis is for lumber, interest rates are 4 and 8%, stands are
fertilized 2 or 3 times and thinned periodically, and that trees were pruned at
age 20 yr. Results showed that higher returns from pruning could be achieved by
concentrating pruning in younger stands that have a higher site index and that
will be fertilized.
16. Fight, R.D., J.M. Cahill, T.A. Snellgrove and T.D. Fahey. 1987b. PRUNE-SIM users guide. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-
Keywords: pruning
economics
computer modeling
Abstract: PRUNE-SIM
is a spreadsheet template (program) that allows users to simulate a financial
analysis of pruning coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) in the
17. Fight, R.D.,
Keywords: pruning
planting operations
wood quality
economics
Abstract: Once
site and genetic stock are selected, management of stocking, rotation age, and
pruning are the principal means available to foresters to affect wood quality
and value in stands of coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii var. menziesii)
in the
18. Figueroa, P.F. 1989. Bigleaf maple control: triclopyr
thin-line and spot-foliar application treatments using imazapyr,
metsulfuron, and glyphosate.
Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science (Vol. 42): 104-119.
Keywords: release treatments
chemical release
stand conditions
economics
Abstract: Field
trials were conducted to compare the efficacies of March applications of triclopyr thin-line +or- 1 kg/ha Mor-act
or 2,4-D (1:1) with June spot-foliar applications of
0.6 or 1.1 kg/ha imazapyr, 0.170 kg/ha metsulfuron and 6.7 kg/ha glyphosate
to control Acer macrophyllum in a Pseudotsuga
menziesii plantation. All thin-line treatments gave
80% control 2 years later; complete sanding was hindered by stems growing along
the ground. Dilution did not affect control. Spot-application success depended
on degree of crown coverage. metsulfuron
and glyphosate were not effective, but imazapyr control reached 60-70% 2 years after treatment.
Only triclopyr and full coverage imazapyr
suppressed A. macrophyllum growth to below the height
of P. menziesii. Crown volume was held to
pre-treatment levels with metsulfuron and glyphosate but decreased with imazapyr.
The two treatment methods tested are potentially cost-effective; triclopyr costs are higher but spot-application carries
higher labour costs. Application rates of 2 ml triclopyr/ Msuperscript 2 crown
area will give 100% control if all stems are banded; with delivery rates of 59
ml/clump a 45% solution can be used.
19. Figueroa, P.F. 1991. Ground
applied herbicide methods for red alder control: herbicide efficacy, labor
costs, and treatment method efficiency. In
Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science,12-14-March-1991.
pp. 44: 53-68.
Keywords: release treatments
chemical release
economics
stand conditions
Abstract: A study
was conducted to develop the cost estimates for ground-applied manual control
methods in variable density red alder [Alnus rubra] stands and to evaluate the efficacy of the various
herbicide formulations for each system. Field trials were initiated in 3
Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii]
plantations located on Weyerhaeuser Company land located in
20. Figueroa, P.F. and V.F. Carrithers. 1993. Bigleaf maple
control: thinline basal applications using triclopyr and triclopyr plus picloram. In Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science,
9-11-March-1993. pp. 46: 24-30.
Keywords: release treatments
chemical release
stand conditions
economics
Abstract: A field
trial was conducted at Mt. St. Helens Tree Farm, Cowlitz county, Washington, in
1988-91 to determine the min. threshold level of herbicide needed to control bigleaf maple [Acer macrophyllum]
stump sprouts in Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii]. Garlon (triclopyr) at 0.24-3 lb/gal was applied on
21. Gessel,
S.P. and W.A. Atkinson. 1984. Use of fertilizers in sustained productivity of
Douglas-fir forests. In Forest soils and treatment impacts:
Proceedings, Sixth North American Forest Soils Conference, Department of
Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, June
1983. pp. 67-87.
Keywords: fertilization
growth
economics
Abstract: A
review is given of studies leading to the establishment of nitrogen deficiency
as a factor reducing growth and the development of N fertilization programmes. Data from several long-term fertilizer trials
in
22. Gessel,
S.P., E.C. Steinbrenner and R.E. Miller. 1981. Response of Northwest forests to
elements other than nitrogen. In Proceedings:
Keywords: fertilization
growth
economics
Abstract: This
paper reviews the development of forest tree nutrition research in the
Northwest. Field observations, foliar analysis, and greenhouse cultures using
both solution and forest soil as media established deficiency symptoms and
levels for major and minor elements. Field experimentation with the entire
range of essential elements has failed to demonstrate widespread deficiencies
of elements other than nitrogen. Certain test areas have shown somewhat better
response to combinations of elements; but because of the limitations of
experimental design and field variation, the response does not generally have a
high statistical significance. In some cases of apparent response, application
of fertilizer materials other than nitrogen does not appear to be economic.
There is sufficient evidence of response to other elements to suggest that much
work needs to be done. Increased utilization of forest materials, shorter
rotation, and greater yields with nitrogen fertilization all point to the fact
that many of the Northwest forest areas could have future elemental
deficiencies, other than nitrogen.
23. Hadfield, J.S. 1988. Integrated pest management
of a western spruce budworm outbreak in the
Keywords: tree/stand protection
tree/stand health
economics
Abstract: The
integrated pest management of the tortricid Choristoneura occidentalis on
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
and true fir (Abies spp.)
in the
24. Haight,
R.G. 1993a. The economics of Douglas-fir and red alder
management with stochastic price trends.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 23(8): 1695-1703.
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
prescribed fire
release treatments
chemical release
thinning
precommercial thinning
commercial thinning
tree/stand protection
economics
Abstract: A
financial analysis of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and red alder (Alnus rubra) management was conducted using yield projections
from the Stand Projection Simulator for the
25. Haight,
R.G. 1993b. Technology change and the economics of silvicultural investment.
Rocky-Mountain-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station,-USDA-
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
prescribed fire
release treatments
chemical release
tree/stand protection
thinning
commercial thinning
precommercial thinning
yield
economics
Abstract: Financial
analyses of intensive and low-cost reforestation options are conducted for loblolly
pine (Pinus contorta)
stands with broadleaved competition in the Southern USA, and Douglas fir with
red alder (Pseudotsuga menziesii
with Alnus rubra) in the
Pacific Northwest. Results show that the expected present values (EPVs) of low-cost options that result in mixtures of
conifers and broadleaves are superior in some situations to the EPVs of the intensive options.
26. Han, H., L.D. Kellogg, G.M. Filip and T.D. Brown. 2000. Scar closure and future timber
value losses from thinning damage in western
Keywords: thinning
tree/stand health
economics
Abstract: This
study investigated bark growth and decay development after thinning damage at
two western
27. Hummel, S. and R. Hummel. 2004.
Five-year thinning response of an overgrown Douglas-fir Christmas tree
plantation. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 19(3): 171-174.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
growth
yield
economics
Abstract: A
15-year-old Douglas-fir Christmas tree plantation in western
28. Hunt, J.A. 1995. Commercial thinning a coastal second-growth forest with a Timberjack cut-to-length system. Forest-Engineering-Research-Institute-of-Canada
FERIC TN-235. 14.
Keywords: thinning
commercial
thinning
economics
tree/stand health
Abstract: In the
summer of 1994, after 2 years operation, FERIC monitored a thinning operation
of second-growth forest dominated by Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga
menziesii] near
Non-OSU
Link
29. Johnson, G.R., N.C. Wheeler and
S.H. Strauss. 2000. Financial feasibility of marker-aided selection in
Douglas-fir. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 30(12): 1942-1952.
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
economics
Abstract: The
paper addresses the financial feasibility of using molecular marker-aided
selection (MAS) as a tool to supplement phenotypic selection during population
improvement of quantitative traits, which is the predominant focus for the
breeding of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and most other tree species. The land area
required for a MAS programme to break even (i.e.,
have equal costs and benefits) was estimated using computer simulation for
coastal Douglas fir in the Pacific Northwest USA. The selection efficiency
obtained when using an index that included the phenotype and the marker score
was compared with that obtained using only the phenotype. It was assumed that
MAS was restricted to within-family selection, that the rotation age was 50
years, and that growth rate (heritability, h2 = 0.25), tree form (h2 = 0.25 ), and (or) wood density (h2 = 0.45) were the objects
of improvement. Several population quantitative trait loci (QTL) models,
selection population sizes, and interest rates were considered. When large
selection population sizes were employed (500 trees per family) MAS gave
considerable increases in efficiency of within-family selection; however,
results showed that the combination of small selection population sizes (100
trees per family) and many QTL of moderate effect could lead to losses in gain
from MAS compared with phenotypic selection. For many reasonable selection
scenarios and the simplified assumptions in the model used, the land base
required for breeding programmes to break even is
smaller or near to the limit of those in place under operational breeding programmes in the region. Considerably more research is
needed to predict reasonably whether MAS would be cost-effective in practice.
However, before some of the basic research needed to implement MAS can be done,
organizations need to establish large blocks of full-sib families to allow for
QTL identification.
30. Kellogg, L.D., G.V. Milota and M. Miller, Jr. 1996. A
comparison of skyline harvesting costs for alternative commercial thinning
prescriptions. Journal-of-Forest-Engineering 7(3): 7-23.
Keywords: thinning
commercial thinning
economics
Abstract: Harvesting
production and costs were examined for three alternative silvicultural
prescriptions at two sites in the Coast Range of Oregon, USA.
Thirty-three-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands were commercially thinned to residual
densities of 247, 148, and 74 trees per hectare (tph).
Detailed time studies were conducted on manual felling and uphill skyline yarding with small yarders.
Separate regression equations were developed to predict delay-free felling
cycle time and delay-free yarding cycle time. The 74 tph treatment had the highest production rate and was the
least costly to harvest. Total harvesting costs of the other two treatments
averaged from 6.0% (148 tph) to 12.3% (247 tph) more than the 74 tph
treatment.
31. Kellogg, L.D., G.V. Milota and B. Stringham. 1998.
Logging planning and layout costs for thinning: experience from the
Keywords: thinning
commercial thinning
economics
Abstract: Logging
planning and layout costs were examined for commercial thinning of 40- to
50-yr-old stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) on the
32. Knapp, W.H., T.C. Turpin and J.H.
Beuter. 1984. Vegetation control for Douglas-fir
regeneration on the
Keywords: planting operations
site preparation
chemical preparation
mechanical preparation
prescribed fire
release treatments
chemical release
manual release
growth
yield
economics
Abstract: Records
from 324 plantations in
33.
Keywords: planting operations
release treatments
yield
economics
Abstract: Models
indicated that the yield and net present value (NPV) of young Pseudotsuga menziesii stands in
34. Kramer, H. and J.H.G. Smith.
1985. Establishment of Douglas fir stands in
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
pruning
growth
yield
economics
wood quality
Abstract: Square spacing
trials were established NW of Haney (180 m alt.) at 0.91, 1.83, 2.74, 3.66 and
4.57 m. Growth to age 25 yr, and simulation estimates up to 100 yr are
reported. Results indicated that extra costs (incurred by thinning) of stands
closer than 4 m spacing are difficult to justify in economic terms, because the
market for Douglas fir timber grown in British Columbia is such that only
production of large timber is economically viable. The quality of timber from
trees grown at wide spacing without thinning is acceptable in relation to
Canadian requirements, and could be improved if wide spacing were combined with
pruning. It is recommended that close spacings be
used only if availability of land is limited or demand for biomass is very
strong.
35. LeDoux,
C.B., R.D. Fight and T.L. Ortman. 1986.
Stump-to-truck cable logging cost equations for young-growth Douglas-fir.
Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 1(1): 19-22.
Keywords: thinning
commercial thinning
economics
Abstract: Data on
log sizes were generated to simulate young (age 40-120 yr) Douglas fir site III
and IV in the
36.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
precommercial thinning
economics
growth
Abstract: A brief
review of the literature is presented on methods for achieving optimal silvicultural decisions. The methods are generally
computationally cumbersome and difficult to convert to simpler approximations
required for most silvicultural decisions. An
alternative method is presented and illustrated with two examples. The method
involves a simple decision analytic structure. Projections were made for pure
coastal Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii
for several treatments using three previously published growth models. Present
Net Worth (PNW) was used as the criterion for choosing
the treatment option and rotation age. The first example involved an initial
planting density decision. Three planting densities were considered, viz. (1)
2500, (2) 1100 or (3) 750 seedlings/ha. The second example involved the
decision to thin a 15-yr-old stand to a spacing
similar to that produced by (1). The options were: (a) no treatment; (b) thin
to 1100 stems/ha; and (c) thin to 500 stems/ha. The best strategy depended on
which growth model was used. The study showed that a simplified decision
analytic approach is a useful method to evaluate a decision, when aided by
several growth models.
37.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
precommercial thinning
economics
growth
Abstract: A
simple decision analytic approach was applied to initial planting density and precommercial spacing decisions for coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) across a
range of sites in
38. McDonald, P.M. and G.O. Fiddler.
1993. Feasibility of alternatives to herbicides in young conifer plantations in
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
site preparation
prescribed fire
release treatments
manual release
chemical release
growth
economics
Abstract: A
research programme (involving 40 studies) was started
in 1980 to compare the effectiveness and cost of various vegetation management
techniques used for enhancing growth of 1- to 3-yr-old conifer (Pseudotsuga menziesii, Pinus ponderosa, P. jeffreyi, Abies magnifica and A. concolor var. lowiana)
plantations in California. The studies were ended after 10 yr when competition
became intraspecific. The techniques used included
direct methods such as manual manipulation, mulching, herbicides (Garlon 3A [triclopyr], 2,4-D or Velpar [hexazinone]), and grazing
for releasing conifer seedlings from undesirable vegetation, and several silvicultural practices (broadcast burning, group
selection, genetically improved seedlings) that serve as indirect methods for
reducing or avoiding vegetation problems. Manual release and mulching were
effective but expensive. Herbicides were effective, applicable to almost all
plant communities, and relatively inexpensive. Grazing was good for cattle and
sheep, but did not significantly enhance conifer seedling growth. Silvicultural control of weeds was promising, but there was
not enough information to evaluate feasibility. It was concluded that in most
instances, forests cannot be managed economically without herbicides, if the
objective is to grow seedlings at the potential of the site and the plant
community includes sprouting broadleaves and shrubs or rhizomatous forbs and
ferns. If the objective is to create a forest with several age-classes and
variable structure, but with slower seedling growth, longer rotations, and less
species diversity in early seral stages, then it is
possible to accomplish this using other vegetation management techniques.
39. McDonald, P.M. and G.O. Fiddler.
1996. Development of a mixed shrub-tanoak-Douglas-fir community in a treated
and untreated condition. Pacific-Southwest-Research-Station,
USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PSW-RP-225. iv
+ 16 p.
Keywords: release treatments
manual release
chemical release
tree/stand health
growth
tree morphology
stand conditions
economics
Abstract: On a
medium site in northern California, a tanoak (Lithocarpus
densiflorus)-mixed shrub community in a Douglas fir
plantation was given several treatments (manual release two and three times, a
combination chainsaw and cut surface herbicide (Garlon
3A [triclopyr]) treatment, two foliar herbicides (2,4-D or Garlon 4), and a tank mix
of the two herbicides) to study its development in both a natural (control) and
treated condition. The herbicides were each applied twice. Survival of planted
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
seedlings was recorded for 11 years and growth was quantified for 9 years after
the last treatment application. In addition to Douglas fir, data are presented
individually for the two most abundant species (tanoak and snowbrush, Ceanothus velutinus var. hookeri), for greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), and for the hardwood tree and shrubs combined. At
the study's end in 1992, combined vegetation in the control had a mean density
of 1800 plants/acre, foliar cover of 23 700 ftsuperscript 2/acre, and height of 11.2 ft. In
contrast, combined tree and shrubs in the most effective treatment for
controlling them (cut and spray Garlon 3A) had a mean
density of 150 plants/acre, foliar cover of 150 ftsuperscript 2/acre and height of 5.9 ft at study
end. Because competition for site resources was low, Douglas fir seedlings
developed best in this treatment. Mean Douglas fir diameter was 4.6 inches at
12 inches above mean ground line, height averaged more than 21 ft, and mean
foliar cover was 39 850 ftsuperscript 2 at the end of
the study. The cost was $227 per acre.
40. McDonald, P.M. and G.O. Fiddler.
1999. Ecology and development of Douglas-fir seedlings and associated plant
species in a
Keywords: release treatments
manual release
chemical release
stand conditions
growth
tree morphology
economics
Abstract: On an
average site in northern coastal California, USA, a tanoak (Lithocarpus
densiflorus)-mixed shrub community was given several
treatments (manual release one, two, and three times; a combination chainsaw
and cut surface chemical treatment; two foliar chemicals; and a tank mix of the
two chemicals) to study its development over an 11-year period (1981-91) in
both a broadcast-burned (untreated control) and released (treated) condition.
The chemicals were 2,4-D, Garlon
[triclopyr] 3A, and Garlon
4, each applied two times. The site had been planted with 2+0 seedlings of
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
in 1979. In addition to Douglas-fir , data are
presented individually for the four most abundant and well distributed species
(tanoak, hairy manzanita (Arctostaphylos
columbiana), huckleberries (Vaccinium
ovatum and V. parviflorum),
and rhododendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum)), and
for these plus two more of the tallest and most abundant (but poorly
distributed) species (snowbush (Ceanothus velutinus), elderberry (Sambucus mexicana)) combined. In 1991, combined shrubs in the
control had a mean density of 4733 plants per acre, foliar cover of 16 800 ft2
per acre, and height of 9.5 feet. In contrast, combined shrubs in one of the
most effective treatments for controlling them (2,4-D) had a mean density of
2000 plant per acre, foliar cover of 2600 ft2 per acre and height of 5.5 feet
at the end of the study. Here, mean Douglas-fir diameter was 4.0 inches at 12
inches above mean ground line, height averaged 18.7 feet, and mean foliar cover
was 34 800 ft2 per acre. The cost (including chemical) was $77 per acre. The
biological and economical data in this paper provide the ecosystem manager,
wildlife biologist, and fuels manager with knowledge on how to attain plant communities
with different density and development potentials, and the cost of creating
them.
41. McLeod, A.A., R.C. Evans and R.K.
Scagel. 1993. Conversion of understocked
salal sites at
Keywords: nursery operations
site preparation
mechanical preparation
fertilization
growth
tree/stand health
economics
Abstract: A trial
comparing the effect of spot scarification and slow release NPK fertilizer
application on stock types of coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) was conducted in a 25-year-old backlog
site occupied by a thick carpet of salal (Gaultheria shallon) in the CWHxm2 habitat of Vancouver Island, British
Columbia. Bare root and container stock types were planted and treated, and
mortality and growth were measured for 3 years. Despite the high
fertilizer-related mortality of the bare-root stock type in the first year, the
3-year height growth performance of all treatments was better but more variable
than that of the untreated seedlings. The value of site
preparation and fertilizer for stimulating early growth varied by stock type.
Bare-root stock did not respond strongly enough to fertilizer or site
preparation to justify the cost of either of these treatments. Container stock
types did not respond strongly enough to site preparation alone to justify the
high cost of site preparation. The largest growth gains in the container stock
types were associated with the combination of site preparation and
fertilization.
42. Miller, G.E.
1983b. When is controlling cone and seed insects in Douglas-fir seed orchards
justified? Forestry-Chronicle 59(6): 304-307.
Keywords: seed orchard management
tree/stand protection
economics
reproduction
Abstract: Two
seed orchards in
43. Miller, R.E. 1981. Response of Douglas-fir to foliar fertilization. In
Proceedings:
Keywords: fertilization
tree/stand health
growth
economics
Abstract: This
paper summarizes past research about spray application of 10 to 32 percent
nitrogen solutions to seedlings and established stands of Douglas-fir. These
investigations establish that Douglas-fir and associated conifers can be foliarly fertilized with concentrated nitrogen solutions at
dosages of 50 to 200 pounds per acre; however, fertilization with these
solutions requires more critical selection of nitrogen source, dosage,
additives, and, perhaps, time of year than does fertilization with urea prill. Some burning, up to about 30 percent of the needle
surface, is visually disturbing but probably has no measurable effects on
growth. With low dosages and careful application, gains in cubic volume or
height growth per pound of applied nitrogen were similar for both spray and prill. Yet costs per pound of applied nitrogen have been
about 25 percent more for 32 percent nitrogen solutions than for prilled urea. Hence, foliar application of concentrated
nitrogen solutions is currently less cost effective than conventional use of
urea solids for fertilizing Douglas-fir and associated conifers.
44. Miller, R.E. and S.R. Webster.
1981. Fertilizer response in mature stands of Douglas-fir. In
Proceedings:
Keywords: fertilization
growth
economics
Abstract:
Published and unpublished response data from fertilizer trials in mature stands
of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii
[Mirb.] Franco) in western
45. Murray, M.D. 1988. Growth and yield of a managed 30-year-old noble fir plantation.
Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-
Keywords: planting operations
growth
yield
economics
Abstract: Yield
of noble fir (Abies procera)
from a managed (urea application 15 yr after planting, precommercially
thinned after 17 and 24 yr) stand in the Doty Hills, western Washington was
measured and compared with the simulated yield of a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) plantation
of the same age. Noble fir produced 3450 ftsuperscript
3/acre at age 30 yr; more than half this volume was in trees of <more or
=>10 inches d.b.h. Current annual increment during
the 6 yr after the second thinning (to 300 trees/acre) was 295 ftsuperscript 3/acre. Ornamental boughs had been harvested
annually for 15 yr. Total noble fir volume was about 5% less than the simulated
volume of Douglas fir. The estimated value of noble fir after 48 yr, including sawlogs and boughs, could exceed the value of Douglas fir
at the same age grown on the same site.
46. Omule, S.A.Y., D.E. Paul and L.M. Darling. 1994. Cost of pruning
Douglas-fir in coastal
Keywords: pruning
economics
Abstract: Artificial
pruning can increase the quantity of high-value clear lumber harvested from
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii),
but the pruning cost per tree is relatively high. To prune a young Douglas fir
to 6 metres in one lift and two lifts took,
respectively, 9.5 and 10.1 minutes in 14- and 18-year old stands with average
spacing between trees of about 3 metres on flat or
0-30% south-facing slopes in coastal British Columbia. The associated costs
were $2.09 and $2.22. This included minor travel time between trees, but
excluded the cost of travelling to the site,
selecting and marking trees to be pruned, and purchasing and maintaining the
pruning equipment. Differences in pruning time between one-lift pruning and
two-lift pruning, in one or two passes, were small. A D-handled saw was
preferred to the more strenuous snap-cut pruner with
ratchet-style pinions, based on observations on a pruning time-study of 5
operators.
47. Potts, S.J., B.R. Hartsough, S.E. Reutebuch and
J.L. Fridley. 1997. Manual polesaw pruning of
Douglas-fir. Applied-Engineering-in-Agriculture 13(3): 399-405.
Keywords: pruning
economics
Abstract: A
time-and-motion study was conducted in
48. Ralston, R., J. Buongiorno and J.S. Fried. 2004. Potential yield, return,
and tree diversity of managed, uneven-aged Douglas-fir stands. Silva-Fennica 38(1): 55-70.
Keywords: thinning
commercial thinning
economics
yield
Abstract: The
effects of different management regimes on uneven-aged Douglas-fir stands in
the
49. Risbrudt, C.D. and S.E. McDonald. 1986. How effective are tree
improvement programs in the 50 States? North-Central-Forest-Experiment-Station,-USDA-
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
economics
Abstract: Data
were collected from all 50 State Foresters on the extent and cost of activities
in producing genetically improved trees for timber production, the use of State
and Private Forestry funds for such activities and the species being improved.
Future timber volume attributable to genetic improvement and benefit/cost ratios
were estimated. Only the benefits of planting on nonindustrial
private forest lands are considered. Loblolly pine improvement accounted for
40% of the total annual expenditure of $4 million. Improvement of loblolly
pine, Douglas fir, slash pine and ponderosa pine represented 80% of all
expenditure. Analysis showed the high sensitivity of the benefit/cost ratios to
the discount rate because of the long time before tree improvement benefits are
realized. It is concluded, however, that the tree improvement programme is a logical public effort because of the
significant long-term benefits of increased timber harvests.
50.
Keywords: seed orchard management
reproduction
economics
Abstract: In a
seed orchard in
51.
Keywords: seed orchard management
reproduction
economics
tree/stand health
Abstract: In a
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
seed orchard in British Columbia, Canada, in 1985, 12- to 17-year-old Douglas
fir grafts received no treatment, stem girdles only (G), or girdles plus stem
injection of gibberellin A4/7 (G+GA) at vegetative
bud burst. In 1987 they were retreated with G+GA or left untreated. Trees were
untreated in 1986 and cone production in 1987 was very sparse. G+GA treatment
in 1987 increased 1988 production of seed cones from 465 to 1600 per tree, with
a comparable increase in frequency of grafts producing a heavy crop of pollen
cones. However, induction treatments applied in 1985 adversely affected seed-
and pollen-cone production in 1988, independent of treatment in 1987. Cone
size, total and filled seed per cone, and seed germination were little affected
by treatment in either year. Treatment with G+GA in 1987 only maximized
production of filled seeds (48 100/tree), although G+GA in both 1985 and 1987 (31
200/tree) was still effective compared with no treatment in either year (14
700/tree). Application time (about 4.8 minutes per tree for G+GA) and costs are
discussed in terms of seed yield (for biennial treatment, about an extra $0.17
per additional 1000 filled seeds). Physiological costs to the tree are noted:
the G+GA treatment adversely affected tree condition more severely than
previously (or since) experienced, probably as a consequence of prolonged
late-summer droughts during each of the treatment years. Additional irrigation
and fertilizer treatments are suggested to alleviate such stresses.
52. Sonne, E., E. Turnblom, D. Briggs and
G. Becker. 2004. Log and lumber grades and value from a Douglas-fir stand 20
years after thinning and biosolids fertilization.
Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 19(1): 34-41.
Keywords: fertilization
thinning
economics
yield
wood quality
Abstract: Three
replications of four treatments: biosolids fertilizer
application, thinning, thinning plus biosolids
fertilizer application, and untreated control were established in 1977 in a
dense, low site, 55-year-old Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) stand in western Washington, USA. In 1998,
12 trees from each treatment were harvested, bucked into logs, and sawn into
visually graded lumber. Taking into account effects of treatments on stand
yield and log grades, biosolid fertilizer application
only, thinning only, and thinning combined with biosolids
increased log value/ac by $1142 (19%), $3642 (62%), and $9969 (155%),
respectively, over the untreated control. When treatment effects were viewed in
terms of changes in lumber yield and quality, per acre gains over the control
were $2107 (26%), $5683 (70%), and $10 708 (132%), respectively. Willingness to
pay analysis indicates that if the landowner intends to manage the stand to a
rotation of approximately 75 years, each of the treatments, and especially the
combination of thinning and applying biosolids,
appears to be financially attractive at both 5 and 9% interest rates. However,
if the rotation had been set at 55 years, only the thinning/biosolids
combination at 5% interest rate would entice management to delay immediate
harvest.
53. Stone, M. 1993. An economic evaluation of commercial thinning
Douglas-fir in the coastal region of
Keywords: thinning
commercial thinning
economics
growth
yield
Abstract: The
economic evaluation of commercial thinning of Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga
menziesii] in the coastal region of
Non-OSU
Link
54. Sturrock,
R.N., E.J. Phillips and R.G. Fraser. 1994. A trial of push-falling to reduce Phellinus weirii infection of
coastal Douglas-fir. B.C. Ministry of
Forests FRDA-Report 217. vi
+ 22 p.
Keywords: tree/stand protection
economics
tree/stand health
soil properties
Abstract: In push-falling,
whole trees are pushed over by a bucket- and thumb-equipped excavator then
grapple skidded to a landing where root masses are cut off and stems are bucked
into logs. Harvesting of trees and removal of diseased roots is thus achieved
with one stand entry. The productivity and economics of push felling were
evaluated in a second-growth Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) stand in coastal
55. Sullivan, T.P. and D.S. Sullivan.
1985. Operational direct seeding of Douglas-fir and lodgepole
pine with alternative foods in
Keywords: planting operations
tree/stand protection
tree/stand health
economics
reproduction
Abstract: Direct
sowing of clear-felled areas in temperate coniferous forests of
56. Tappeiner, J.C., J.F. Bell and J.D. Brodie.
1982. Response of young Douglas-fir to 16 years of intensive thinning.
Forest-Research-Laboratory,-
Keywords: thinning
growth
yield
tree/stand health
economics
Abstract: The
report of the thinning study in the
57. Tarrant, R.F., B.T. Bormann, D.S. DeBell and W.A.
Atkinson. 1983. Managing red alder in the Douglas-fir region: some
possibilities. Journal-of-Forestry 81(12): 787-792.
Keywords: planting operations
fertilization
yield
economics
Abstract: An
economic comparison of 3 systems for growing Alnus rubra (rotations of 13,20 and 28 yr) in the Pacific
Northwest USA, with or without alternating rotations (45 yr) of Douglas fir,
and 2 continuous systems for growing Douglas fir (45-yr rotations with or
without treatment with N fertilizer). Anticipated stand yield, and costs of
site preparation, planting, fertilization etc. were used to estimate m.a.i. (vol.), present net worth and internal rate of
return. The 2 most profitable systems were Douglas fir, thinned and treated
with fertilizer twice in 45 yr (present net worth $623/acre) and red alder
grown to sawlog size (28 yr) alternating with Douglas
fir thinned twice in 45 yr (present net worth $578/acre). The least profitable
system was red alder grown continuously in 13 yr rotations (present net worth
-$251/acre). Alternate cropping of red alder and Douglas fir or continuous red
alder production would be as profitable as growing Douglas fir alone if there
were increases in real interest rate, alder stumpage price, or the cost of N
fertilizer, or alder sawlog rotation length
decreased.
58. Tedder, P.L. 1981. Reforestation of steep sites with skeletal
soils - is it economically realistic? In
Reforestation-of-skeletal-soils. Eds. S.D. Hobbs and O.T. Helgerson,
Keywords: planting operations
economics
Abstract: The
lack of data concerning volume yields from steep sites with skeletal soils
precludes any substantive analysis. However, with projections of moderate
increases in real stumpage prices of Douglas-fir, regeneration of Sites IV and
below indicate that a rate of return less than five percent (real) will be
realized.
Non-OSU
Link
59. Thomson, T.A. 1989. Evaluating some financial uncertainties of tree improvement using
the capital asset pricing model and dominance analysis.
Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 19(11): 1380-1388.
Keywords: genetic tree improvement
economics
Abstract: Although
uncertainty considerations are of prime importance in capital budgeting,
forestry investments are often evaluated without comparing their uncertainty
level with their rates of return. An examination was made of some financial
uncertainties of a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) tree improvement programme
in the US Pacific Northwest with analysis of likely rates of return on
investment. Biophysical uncertainties such as amount of genetic gain or
uncertainty of site quality were determined by a priori assumption to be
non-market; thus, use of expected value adjusted for these risks. The market
uncertainties of tree improvement were found to be reasonable in relation to
other investments, as sensitivity analysis showed that the financial risks were
small or the measured beta (covariance of the assets' returns with the market's
returns divided by the variance of the market) was low. It is concluded that
the tree improvement investment is worthwhile, considering its risk as well as
return.
60. Walstad, J.D., J.D. Brodie, B.C.
McGinley and
Keywords: release treatments
chemical release
growth
yield
economics
Abstract: Retrospective
analyses were made of 3 Douglas fir plantations (age 12-39 yr) in western
61.
Keywords: planting operations
thinning
yield
tree morphology
economics
tree/stand health
Abstract: Long
planning horizons generate substantial uncertainty in forest management, making
management flexibility, the ability to choose between multiple options or
opportunities, a desirable attribute of managed forests. Flexibility in forest
management reflects both the relative rigidity of intervention requirements and
the potential range of development pathways for a stand. The wind stability of