1. 1987. Impact of intensive forestry practices on net stand values in British Columbia. B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report 014. 109 p.

Keywords: release treatments

fertilization

thinning

yield

economics

Abstract: Yield responses to major silvicultural treatments (regeneration method, brushing and weeding, spacing and thinning and fertilizer use) are analysed in relation to growth and yield theory, and their translation into operational use of treatments to increase merchantable vol. is considered. Data from coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and western hemlock/Abies amabilis stands and interior white spruce (Picea glauca), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and wet belt Douglas fir stands are used to quantify the net present value of treatments in terms of improvement in net stand values and merchantable vol. Potentially viable treatment options are identified for each stand type present.

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2. Anderson, H.W. and M. Hyatt. 1981. Feasibility of hand application of urea to forest land in western Washington. In Proceedings: Forest Fertilization Conference, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA. Eds. S.P. Gessel, R.M. Kenady and W.A. Atkinson. pp. 205-208.

Keywords: fertilization

economics

Abstract: A large scale pilot study to determine the potential of hand fertilizing forest stands in western Washington was undertaken by the Department of Natural Resources in 1976. Tests were conducted in two major stand types of Douglas-fir (juvenile stands with voids and openings and older open growh stands), where two hand spreading techniques (broadcast and individual tree fertilization) and two types of work crews (contract and DNR) were evaluated. During the study manhours of the various job-related activities were recorded and costs determined. A total of 634 acres was treated and costs ranged from $36.95 to $125.42 per acre and averaged $81.74 per acre (1976 dollars). Costs varied because of stand type which influenced the fertilizer rate and crew type which influenced the application cost. Based on units treated in this study and assuming similar conditions, estimates of hand fertilization costs for an operational fertilization project where stand conditions would allow for a reduced fertilizer rate (individual tree fertilization) would be approximately $52 per acre at the rate of 330 pounds of urea and $42 per acre at the rate of 220 pounds of urea. This compares to costs of $61 per acre for hand broadcast application at 440 pounds of urea and $56 per acre for aerial application at the same rate. Therefore, where stand conditions allow for a reduced rate of fertilizer, hand application could be a more inviting alternative to the normal procedure of aerial application.

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3. Atkinson, W.A. 1981. Preliminary guidelines for fertilizing less than fully stocked stands and mixed species stands. In Conference Proceedings: Forest Fertilization Conference, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA. Eds. S.P. Gessel, R.M. Kenady and W.A. Atkinson. pp. 59-61.

Keywords: fertilization

economics

Abstract: Foresters engaged in selecting areas for operational fertilization rarely encounter the fully stocked pure-species Douglas-fir stands that are studied by researchers. Most often the question is one of establishing minimal standards for choosing stands to fertilize. This paper offers preliminary guidelines for fertilizing less than fully stocked stands and mixed-species stands. Results are presented by age and site, and consist of a table showing minimal basal area stocking required to earn a given interest rate.

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4. Aubry, C.A., W.T. Adams and T.D. Fahey. 1998. Determination of relative economic weights for multitrait selection in coastal Douglas-fir. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 28(8): 1164-1170.

Keywords: genetic tree improvement

yield

wood quality

economics

Abstract: Relationships between tree traits and tree value for lumber production were investigated. For the purposes of estimating relative economic weights for use in multitrait selection in coastal Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), tree height, diameter at breast height, and branch diameter were measured on 164 trees (ages 36-66 yr) sampled from 11 intensively managed stands with a wide range of site attributes, growing conditions, ages and stocking histories in western Washington and Oregon. Increment cores from a subsample (92) of these trees were assayed by X-ray densitometry to determine wood density. Bole volume was derived by summing the log volumes of all logs from each tree. Value of lumber recovered from each tree was determined in a separate mill study using both visual and machine stress rated (MSR) grading rules. Multiple linear regression was used to relate tree value to the growth and wood quality traits. Stem volume and branch diameter significantly influenced tree value under visual grading, with relative economic weights of 0.06 dmsuperscript 3 and -5.22 cm, respectively. Wood density significantly influenced tree value under MSR grading (relative economic weights: 0.06 dmsuperscript 3, -6.69 cm, and 0.06 kg/msuperscript 3, respectively), where lumber strength is measured more accurately. These regression coefficients can be used directly as economic weights in selection indices in the development of advanced breeding programmes for Douglas fir.

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5. Bare, B.B. 1981. Tax effects of fertilization. In Proceedings: Forest Fertilization Conference, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA. Eds. S.P. Gessel, R.M. Kenady and W.A. Atkinson. pp. 238-242.

Keywords: fertilization

economics

Abstract: This paper describes the sensitivity of investment performance when fertilzization activities are treated as expensed, capitalized, or amortized expenditures. Current Internal Revenue Service policy favors capitalization, but pending revenue rulings are expected to recommend amortization. The impact of these three alternatives on after-tax cash flows is illustrated by a numerical example for the Douglas-fir zone of the USA.

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6. Brix, H. 1993. Fertilization and thinning effect on a Douglas-fir ecosystem at Shawnigan Lake: a synthesis of project results. B.C. Ministry of Forests FRDA-Report 196. X + 64 p.

Keywords: fertilization

thinning

growth

tree morphology

tree/stand health

carbon allocation

wood quality

tree physiology

photosynthesis

economics

Abstract: Treatments were initiated in 1970-71 in a 24-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) near Shawnigan Lake, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, to determine the effects of 3 intensities of thinning (removing none, one-third and two-thirds of basal area) and 3 levels of urea fertilizer (0, 224 and 448 kg N/ha) on the growth and biology of the trees. Subsidiary experiments were established during 1972-87 to examine the effects of high doses of urea (672-1344 kg N/ha), ammonium nitrate as an N source instead of urea, understorey response to thinning and fertilizer, and responses to P and S fertilizer.

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7. Curtis, R.O., D.D. Marshall and D.S. DeBell. 2004. Silvicultural options for young-growth Douglas-fir forests: the Capitol Forest study - establishment and first results. Pacific Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report PNW-GTR-598. xi + 110 p.

Keywords: thinning

commercial thinning

economics

soil properties

Abstract: This report describes the origin, design, establishment and measurement procedures and first results of a large long term cooperative study comparing a number of widely different silvicultural regimes applied to young-growth Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands managed for multiple objectives. Regimes consist of (1) conventional clear felling followed by intermediate thinning; (2) retention of reserve trees to create a two-aged stand; (3) small patch cuts dispersed within a thinned matrix, repeated at approximately 15-year intervals to create a mosaic of age classes; (4) group selection within a thinned matrix on an approximate 15-year cycle; (5) continued thinning on an extended rotation; and (6) an untreated control. Each of these regimes is on operation-size units (approximately 30 to 70 acres each). A LIDAR system was used to scan the surface of the 2 miles2 that encompass the Blue Ridge study site on the Capitol State Forest, near Olympia, Washington, USA. This measurement technology emits laser pulses that are reflected by vegetation, buildings, or the ground surface. Output variables from the study to be evaluated include conventional timber growth and yield statistics, harvest costs, sale layout and administration costs, aesthetic effects and public acceptance, soil disturbance, bird populations, and economic aspects. Descriptive statistics and some initial results are presented for the first replicate, established in 1997-98.

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8. Duke, K.M., G.M. Townsend and W.A. White. 1989. An economic analysis of fertilization and thinning effects on Douglas-fir stands at Shawnigan Lake. Canadian-Forest-Service, Pacific and Yukon Region Information-Report BC-X-312. v + 19 p.

Keywords: fertilization

thinning

economics

computer modeling

Abstract: A single-tree density-dependent growth model was used to project, from age 24 to age 120 yr, 9 combinations of thinning and fertilizer application (nitrogen as urea or ammonium nitrate) in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) near Shawnigan Lake, British Columbia. Costs and benefits were estimated as a function of stand diameter, and forestry investment criteria were used to evaluate each treatment on both an incremental and a regime basis. The effect of rising real prices, and the treatment of silvicultural costs as an initial investment or as a harvest cost were also studied.

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9. El Kassaby, Y.A. and K. Ritland. 1986. The relation of outcrossing and contamination to reproductive phenology and supplemental mass pollination in a Douglas-fir seed orchard. Silvae-Genetica 35(5/6): 240-244.

Keywords: genetic tree improvement

seed orchard management

tree phenology

genetic relationships

economics

reproduction

Abstract: A study was made using allozyme markers of outcrossing and contamination rates in relation to reproductive phenology and supplemental mass pollination in a Douglas fir seed orchard in British Columbia, Canada. Supplemental mass pollination was applied only to the intermediate reproductive phenology class, which showed a high outcrossing rate and no contamination. Both early and late reproductive phenology classes showed significant contamination, but the outcrossing rate for the former was significantly higher than for the latter. These results show that interpretation of seed crop genetic quality based on outcrossing alone could be misleading. The rate and source of contamination, reproductive phenology and crop size should also be considered. The practicability and economics of supplemental mass pollination in avoiding both selfing and contamination are discussed. It was concluded that waterspray cooling and/or supplemental mass pollination of early and late reproductive phenology classes in moderate or good cone-crop years would be an effective management practice. The option of aborting small cone crops in mature orchards is also discussed.

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10. Emmingham, W.L., P. Oester, M. Bennett, F. Kukulka, K. Conrad and A. Michel. 2002. Comparing short-term financial aspects of four management options in Oregon: implications for uneven-aged management. Forestry-Oxford 75(4): 489-494.

Keywords: thinning

commercial thinning

economics

yield

Abstract: Private family forest owners are often more interested in comparing short-term financial outcomes of management options, as opposed to longer time horizons and classical economic analyses including net present value. Therefore, we compared projected 10-year value of timber and land for four theoretical management scenarios starting with stands ripe for thinning. The options were (1) hold for 10 years (i.e. no thinning), (2) thin for even-age, or (3) partial cut for uneven-age and (4) clearcut now. To simulate the outcomes of these scenarios, we marked and measured 2-ha plots in 10 stands typical of private forest ownerships across Oregon and projected timber yields and revenues. The financial analysis included current market values for logs, payment of taxes and typical reforestation costs and computation of net asset values (NAV) at a 7 per cent interest rate. The hold option consistently gave the highest NAV for timber and land after 10 years, and the thin option was within 2 per cent. For the eight western Oregon stands, the partial-cut option averaged about 3 per cent less, and the clearcut option ranged from 8 to 17 per cent less than holding. Pine stands of eastern Oregon showed similar trends; however, all options were within about 6 per cent of the hold option. Thus, using financial criteria typical of those used by private forest owners, we found that there was little short-term financial loss in choosing to thin toward even-age, partial cut toward uneven-age, or the hold approach in well-stocked stands.

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11. Feller, M.C., J.P. Kimmins and K.A. Scoullar. 1983. FORCYTE-10: calibration data and simulation of potential long-term effects of intensive forest management on site productivity, economic performance, and energy benefit/cost ratio. In I.U.F.R.B. Symposium on. Forest Site and Continuous Productivity; Seattle, Washington; August 22-28, 1982. Eds. R. Ballard and S.P. Gessel. Pacific-Northwest-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station, USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report PNW-GTR-163 Part B. 179-200 pp.

Keywords: thinning

fertilization

soil properties

economics

computer modeling

Abstract: FORCYTE (FORest nutrient Cycling and Yield Trend Evaluator) is a computer simulation model of forest plant biomass production, litterfall, and decomposition, complete with nutrient cycling, nutrient limitation on growth, and a variety of management interventions. The model is a computerized approach to the estimation of the effects of varying thinning and fertilizer regimes, utilization level, and rotation length on site nutrient budgets, stand productivity, and the economic performance and energy efficiency of management. The model has evolved over 5 years to its present version FORCYTE-10, which is briefly described. Accompanying the development of FORCYTE, there has been a series of field research projects. Detailed biomass and biogeochemical descriptions of age sequences of Douglas-fir stands on both good and poor sites have been prepared for purposes of model calibration and testing. The present report summarizes some of the results of the FORCYTE-10 field studies on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and presents some examples of the use of the model when calibrated with these data.

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12. Fight, R.D., N.A. Bolon and J.M. Cahill. 1993. Financial analysis of pruning Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine in the Pacific Northwest. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 8(2): 58-61.

Keywords: pruning

economics

computer modeling

Abstract: Recent lumber recovery studies of pruned and unpruned Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa) were incorporated into computer software using lumber grade prices, growth and yield data, the cost of pruning, and interest rates to determine the expected financial return from pruning. Financial analyses showed that the cost of pruning at which the investment would yield an expected 4% real rate of return was positive on sites where individual tree growth is fairly high, pruning is done as early as biologically possible given limitations on crown removal, and the harvest is 30 to 70 yr after pruning. The better situations in Douglas fir showed a break-even cost of up to $21/tree and an internal rate of return exceeding 9%. The better situations in ponderosa pine showed a break-even cost of up to $11/tree and an internal rate of return of 7%.

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13. Fight, R.D., J.M. Cahill and T.D. Fahey. 1992. DFPRUNE users guide. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report PNW-GTR-300. 12 p.

Keywords: pruning

economics

computer modeling

Abstract: The DFPRUNE spreadsheet program is designed to estimate the expected financial return from pruning coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii). It is a significant revision of the PRUNE-SIM program. The PRUNE-SIM program was based on the average product recovery for unpruned logs from a single stand that received frequent light thinnings. The DFPRUNE program incorporates new recovery information for unpruned young-growth Douglas fir and can be used to assess the economic potential of pruning for a wide range of management regimes. Product prices and descriptions of trees at time of pruning and at time of harvest must be supplied by the user. The DFPRUNE program was developed for the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet and should work on versions 2.01 or later.

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14. Fight, R.D., J.M. Cahill, T.D. Fahey and T.A. Snellgrove. 1987a. Financial analysis of pruning coast Douglas-fir. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service Research-Paper PNW-RP-390. ii + 17 p.

Keywords: pruning

fertilization

economics

wood quality

yield

computer modeling

Abstract: Unpruned stands of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) will yield little clear material under current management regimes in western Oregon and western Washington. Data from a recent study of grade recovery from pruned logs were analysed and a spreadsheet program was developed and used to simulate the increase in grade recovery and financial returns from pruning. Results are presented for a range of site indices, ages at time of pruning and time of harvest, product prices and interest rates, and for stands with and without nitrogen fertilizer treatment. Results showed that a 5-yr difference in the time of pruning can make a substantial difference in the financial return. An earlier age at pruning always gave a higher return. At 4 and 8% interest rates, the return was generally greatest when the harvest was 40-50 yr or 30-40 yr, respectively, after pruning. Fertilizer treatment substantially increased the return from pruning, especially on poor sites.

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15. Fight, R.D., J.M. Cahill, T.D. Fahey and T.A. Snellgrove. 1988. A new look at pruning coast Douglas-fir. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 3(2): 46-48.

Keywords: pruning

thinning

fertilization

economics

Abstract: A short account of an evaluation of the financial returns of pruning coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), using new product-recovery information and computer software, and assuming that: the analysis is for lumber, interest rates are 4 and 8%, stands are fertilized 2 or 3 times and thinned periodically, and that trees were pruned at age 20 yr. Results showed that higher returns from pruning could be achieved by concentrating pruning in younger stands that have a higher site index and that will be fertilized.

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16. Fight, R.D., J.M. Cahill, T.A. Snellgrove and T.D. Fahey. 1987b. PRUNE-SIM users guide. Pacific-Northwest-Research-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report PNW-GTR-209. 21 p.

Keywords: pruning

economics

computer modeling

Abstract: PRUNE-SIM is a spreadsheet template (program) that allows users to simulate a financial analysis of pruning coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) in the USA. The program estimates the increase in product value resulting from pruning the butt 17-foot log. Product recovery information is based on actual mill experience with pruned and unpruned logs for both sawn and peeled products. Users must supply tree descriptions from sources of growth and yield information and product prices. The program calculates the difference in value for trees and stands with and without pruning. The present value of this difference represents the maximum amount that could be spent on pruning without reducing the rate of return on the investment below the specified rate. The LOTUS 1-2-3 spreadsheet program was used to develop PRUNE-SIM.

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17. Fight, R.D., S. Johnston, D.G. Briggs, T.D. Fahey, N.A. Bolon and J.M. Cahill. 1995. How much timber quality can we afford in coast Douglas-fir stands? Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 10(1): 12-16.

Keywords: pruning

planting operations

wood quality

economics

Abstract: Once site and genetic stock are selected, management of stocking, rotation age, and pruning are the principal means available to foresters to affect wood quality and value in stands of coast Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) in the Pacific Northwest. Financial evaluation was used to test whether or not improvements in wood quality and value by these means justify the cost of doing so. This analysis showed in general that improving quality through high levels of stocking or extending rotations were costly ways to improve wood quality while pruning was cost effective.

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18. Figueroa, P.F. 1989. Bigleaf maple control: triclopyr thin-line and spot-foliar application treatments using imazapyr, metsulfuron, and glyphosate. Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science (Vol. 42): 104-119.

Keywords: release treatments

chemical release

stand conditions

economics

Abstract: Field trials were conducted to compare the efficacies of March applications of triclopyr thin-line +or- 1 kg/ha Mor-act or 2,4-D (1:1) with June spot-foliar applications of 0.6 or 1.1 kg/ha imazapyr, 0.170 kg/ha metsulfuron and 6.7 kg/ha glyphosate to control Acer macrophyllum in a Pseudotsuga menziesii plantation. All thin-line treatments gave 80% control 2 years later; complete sanding was hindered by stems growing along the ground. Dilution did not affect control. Spot-application success depended on degree of crown coverage. metsulfuron and glyphosate were not effective, but imazapyr control reached 60-70% 2 years after treatment. Only triclopyr and full coverage imazapyr suppressed A. macrophyllum growth to below the height of P. menziesii. Crown volume was held to pre-treatment levels with metsulfuron and glyphosate but decreased with imazapyr. The two treatment methods tested are potentially cost-effective; triclopyr costs are higher but spot-application carries higher labour costs. Application rates of 2 ml triclopyr/ Msuperscript 2 crown area will give 100% control if all stems are banded; with delivery rates of 59 ml/clump a 45% solution can be used.

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19. Figueroa, P.F. 1991. Ground applied herbicide methods for red alder control: herbicide efficacy, labor costs, and treatment method efficiency. In Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science,12-14-March-1991. pp. 44: 53-68.

Keywords: release treatments

chemical release

economics

stand conditions

Abstract: A study was conducted to develop the cost estimates for ground-applied manual control methods in variable density red alder [Alnus rubra] stands and to evaluate the efficacy of the various herbicide formulations for each system. Field trials were initiated in 3 Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] plantations located on Weyerhaeuser Company land located in SW Washington. Two 6-year-old plantations had streamside buffer zones remaining from the previous year's operational herbicide spray programme; the 3rd was a 13-year-old plantation which had not been previously treated with herbicides to control A. rubra. The treatments tested were as follows: 50% triclopyr, 45% glyphosate and 10% imazapyr applied to the cut stump surface; low-vol. basal application of 5, 10 and 15% triclopyr and 2 and 4% imazapyr; thin-line application of 50, 75 and 100% triclopyr and 20 and 40% imazapyr; stream-line application of 10, 30 and 50% triclopyr and 4 and 20% imazapyr; hack-and-squirt application with imazapyr applied to 1 cut at 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 ml and to 2 cuts at 0.25 and 0.5 ml; and capsule injection of 1 or 2 glyphosate capsules. A discussion of the results is presented and total treatment costs are given. It is concluded that ground application treatments have advantages over aerially applied treatments, including being useful for the treatment of areas of public sensitivity and when other environmental risks need to be minimized.

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20. Figueroa, P.F. and V.F. Carrithers. 1993. Bigleaf maple control: thinline basal applications using triclopyr and triclopyr plus picloram. In Proceedings-of-the-Western-Society-of-Weed-Science, 9-11-March-1993. pp. 46: 24-30.

Keywords: release treatments

chemical release

stand conditions

economics

Abstract: A field trial was conducted at Mt. St. Helens Tree Farm, Cowlitz county, Washington, in 1988-91 to determine the min. threshold level of herbicide needed to control bigleaf maple [Acer macrophyllum] stump sprouts in Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii]. Garlon (triclopyr) at 0.24-3 lb/gal was applied on 6 Dec. 1990, 6 Feb. 1991 and 11 Apr. 1991, and triclopyr + picloram at 1 + 0.5 lb was applied on 6 Feb. 1991 using thinline applications to the entire circumference of each stem in the bigleaf maple clump. The threshold level of Garlon for <more or =>90% control was found to be between 1.1 and 1.7 ml/msuperscript 2 of crown area. Most treatments produced clumps that appeared to be dead during the 1st year but which resprouted in the 2nd year; it is suggested that such inconsistencies in mortality among treatments are due to the inability to completely band every stem. Economic considerations for herbicide costs are discussed.

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21. Gessel, S.P. and W.A. Atkinson. 1984. Use of fertilizers in sustained productivity of Douglas-fir forests. In Forest soils and treatment impacts: Proceedings, Sixth North American Forest Soils Conference, Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, June 1983. pp. 67-87.

Keywords: fertilization

growth

economics

Abstract: A review is given of studies leading to the establishment of nitrogen deficiency as a factor reducing growth and the development of N fertilization programmes. Data from several long-term fertilizer trials in Washington and Oregon support the conclusion that N deficiency is frequently a controlling factor in the growth of Douglas fir and that additions of N can result in long-term growth increases. The economics of fertilization and the continued availability of nitrogen fertilizers are discussed.

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22. Gessel, S.P., E.C. Steinbrenner and R.E. Miller. 1981. Response of Northwest forests to elements other than nitrogen. In Proceedings: Forest Fertilization Conference, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA. Eds. S.P. Gessel, R.M. Kenady and W.A. Atkinson. pp. 140-149.

Keywords: fertilization

growth

economics

Abstract: This paper reviews the development of forest tree nutrition research in the Northwest. Field observations, foliar analysis, and greenhouse cultures using both solution and forest soil as media established deficiency symptoms and levels for major and minor elements. Field experimentation with the entire range of essential elements has failed to demonstrate widespread deficiencies of elements other than nitrogen. Certain test areas have shown somewhat better response to combinations of elements; but because of the limitations of experimental design and field variation, the response does not generally have a high statistical significance. In some cases of apparent response, application of fertilizer materials other than nitrogen does not appear to be economic. There is sufficient evidence of response to other elements to suggest that much work needs to be done. Increased utilization of forest materials, shorter rotation, and greater yields with nitrogen fertilization all point to the fact that many of the Northwest forest areas could have future elemental deficiencies, other than nitrogen.

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23. Hadfield, J.S. 1988. Integrated pest management of a western spruce budworm outbreak in the Pacific Northwest. Northwest-Environmental-Journal 4(2): 301-312.

Keywords: tree/stand protection

tree/stand health

economics

Abstract: The integrated pest management of the tortricid Choristoneura occidentalis on Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and true fir (Abies spp.) in the Northwest USA is described. Details of the population dynamics and impact of this pest are given. The integrated pest management programme involves the following steps: monitoring the pest-food plant system to measure populations and damage; evaluating the effects of the outbreak; developing alternative strategies for managing the outbreak; evaluating the economic and environmental consequences of these strategies; selecting a strategy; and monitoring the implemented strategy.

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24. Haight, R.G. 1993a. The economics of Douglas-fir and red alder management with stochastic price trends. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 23(8): 1695-1703.

Keywords: planting operations

site preparation

prescribed fire

release treatments

chemical release

thinning

precommercial thinning

commercial thinning

tree/stand protection

economics

Abstract: A financial analysis of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and red alder (Alnus rubra) management was conducted using yield projections from the Stand Projection Simulator for the Pacific Northwest region of the United Sates. The analysis included uncertainty in the price trends and stocking levels of both species following reforestation. Results from a case study in which Douglas fir price is likely to increase faster than red alder price show that (i) on more productive sites, greater regeneration investment is justified to increase the likelihood of Douglas fir establishment, (ii) on less productive sites, low-cost regeneration options that produce mixed-species stands have expected present values close to or greater than a high-cost Douglas fir regeneration effort, (iii) optimal precommercial removal of red alder depends on mid-rotation prices and regeneration success, and in many cases growing a mixed-species stand to maturity produces the highest economic return, and (iv) commercial thinning of Douglas fir increases the expected present value of the most intensive regeneration option by up to 10%. The low-cost regeneration options have relatively high expected returns because of low initial investments and the presence of two species that may have high values in the future. The sensitivity of these results to changes in the probability distributions of regeneration success and price trends is discussed.

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25. Haight, R.G. 1993b. Technology change and the economics of silvicultural investment. Rocky-Mountain-Forest-and-Range-Experiment-Station,-USDA-Forest-Service General-Technical-Report RM-GTR-232. ii + 18 p.

Keywords: planting operations

site preparation

prescribed fire

release treatments

chemical release

tree/stand protection

thinning

commercial thinning

precommercial thinning

yield

economics

Abstract: Financial analyses of intensive and low-cost reforestation options are conducted for loblolly pine (Pinus contorta) stands with broadleaved competition in the Southern USA, and Douglas fir with red alder (Pseudotsuga menziesii with Alnus rubra) in the Pacific Northwest. Results show that the expected present values (EPVs) of low-cost options that result in mixtures of conifers and broadleaves are superior in some situations to the EPVs of the intensive options.

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26. Han, H., L.D. Kellogg, G.M. Filip and T.D. Brown. 2000. Scar closure and future timber value losses from thinning damage in western Oregon. Forest-Products-Journal 50(1): 36-42.

Keywords: thinning

tree/stand health

economics

Abstract: This study investigated bark growth and decay development after thinning damage at two western Oregon sites, and estimated value loss with a tree growth model. All scars that remained open in western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) had advanced decay 13 years after initial wounding. Scars less than 4 inches wide closed in 8 years. Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) was more resistant to decay; no rot was observed in scars less than 21 years old. Advanced decay and pitch rings, however, were observed in 29-year-old scars, both open and closed. Because of these defects, future value loss increased with time after wounding and with higher stand damage levels. Fifty years after thinning, about 2% of the total future log value, or $189/ac. (1997$), could be lost in Douglas-fir stands with 20% stand damage and a 2-inch diameter deduction. This loss could be reduced to $58/ac. if stand damage were minimized to 5% with more careful techniques. The increase in thinning costs ($61/ac. for tractor thinning; $79/ac. for cut-to-length; $124/ac. for skyline; with a 5% increase in production time) that is incurred while trying to minimize stand damage could be justified if it reduced future value losses to crop trees.

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27. Hummel, S. and R. Hummel. 2004. Five-year thinning response of an overgrown Douglas-fir Christmas tree plantation. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 19(3): 171-174.

Keywords: planting operations

thinning

growth

yield

economics

Abstract: A 15-year-old Douglas-fir Christmas tree plantation in western Oregon was thinned in 1996 according to regional sawtimber conversion guidelines. The plantation comprised two strata, distinguished by initial planting density (Area 1=5x5 ft and Area 2=10x10 ft). Unthinned control plots were established in both Area 1 and Area 2 at the time of the thinning treatment. Five years later, the quadratic mean diameter (QMD) in Area 1 (thinned) was 6.4 in. versus 5.2 in. in Area 1 (unthinned), while in Area 2 (thinned) the QMD was 11.4 in. compared to 9.3 in. in Area 2 (unthinned). Over the same period, the volume/ac in Area 1 (thinned) (1,080 ft3/ac) was nearly twice that of Area 1 (unthinned) (576 ft3/ac). In contrast, the volume/ac in Area 2 (thinned) (2,318 ft3/acre) was almost half that of Area 2 (unthinned) (4,264 ft3/ac). These results suggest that while thinning was timely for Area 1, the thinning treatment could have been delayed for Area 2. By plantation age 30, the treated units in Area 1 and Area 2 have estimated yields of 9.6 and 11.6 thousand bd ft (mbf), respectively, with no additional thinning. Given 2002 average prices for #3 sawmill grade logs, gross return at age 30 would range between $5,000 and $6,000/ac.

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28. Hunt, J.A. 1995. Commercial thinning a coastal second-growth forest with a Timberjack cut-to-length system. Forest-Engineering-Research-Institute-of-Canada FERIC TN-235. 14.

Keywords: thinning
commercial thinning
economics
tree/stand health

Abstract: In the summer of 1994, after 2 years operation, FERIC monitored a thinning operation of second-growth forest dominated by Douglas fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii] near Cowichan Lake, Vancouver Island, to determine productivities, costs and impacts to sites and residual stands. The thinning treatment was carried out with a Timberjack 1270 harvester and a Timberjack 910 forwarder.

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29. Johnson, G.R., N.C. Wheeler and S.H. Strauss. 2000. Financial feasibility of marker-aided selection in Douglas-fir. Canadian-Journal-of-Forest-Research 30(12): 1942-1952.

Keywords: genetic tree improvement

economics

Abstract: The paper addresses the financial feasibility of using molecular marker-aided selection (MAS) as a tool to supplement phenotypic selection during population improvement of quantitative traits, which is the predominant focus for the breeding of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and most other tree species. The land area required for a MAS programme to break even (i.e., have equal costs and benefits) was estimated using computer simulation for coastal Douglas fir in the Pacific Northwest USA. The selection efficiency obtained when using an index that included the phenotype and the marker score was compared with that obtained using only the phenotype. It was assumed that MAS was restricted to within-family selection, that the rotation age was 50 years, and that growth rate (heritability, h2 = 0.25), tree form (h2 = 0.25 ), and (or) wood density (h2 = 0.45) were the objects of improvement. Several population quantitative trait loci (QTL) models, selection population sizes, and interest rates were considered. When large selection population sizes were employed (500 trees per family) MAS gave considerable increases in efficiency of within-family selection; however, results showed that the combination of small selection population sizes (100 trees per family) and many QTL of moderate effect could lead to losses in gain from MAS compared with phenotypic selection. For many reasonable selection scenarios and the simplified assumptions in the model used, the land base required for breeding programmes to break even is smaller or near to the limit of those in place under operational breeding programmes in the region. Considerably more research is needed to predict reasonably whether MAS would be cost-effective in practice. However, before some of the basic research needed to implement MAS can be done, organizations need to establish large blocks of full-sib families to allow for QTL identification.

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30. Kellogg, L.D., G.V. Milota and M. Miller, Jr. 1996. A comparison of skyline harvesting costs for alternative commercial thinning prescriptions. Journal-of-Forest-Engineering 7(3): 7-23.

Keywords: thinning

commercial thinning

economics

Abstract: Harvesting production and costs were examined for three alternative silvicultural prescriptions at two sites in the Coast Range of Oregon, USA. Thirty-three-year-old Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands were commercially thinned to residual densities of 247, 148, and 74 trees per hectare (tph). Detailed time studies were conducted on manual felling and uphill skyline yarding with small yarders. Separate regression equations were developed to predict delay-free felling cycle time and delay-free yarding cycle time. The 74 tph treatment had the highest production rate and was the least costly to harvest. Total harvesting costs of the other two treatments averaged from 6.0% (148 tph) to 12.3% (247 tph) more than the 74 tph treatment.

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31. Kellogg, L.D., G.V. Milota and B. Stringham. 1998. Logging planning and layout costs for thinning: experience from the Willamette young stand project. Forest-Research-Laboratory Research Contribution 20, Oregon-State-University, Corvaliis, OR.

Keywords: thinning

commercial thinning

economics

Abstract: Logging planning and layout costs were examined for commercial thinning of 40- to 50-yr-old stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) on the Willamette National Forest in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon. The study consisted of four replications of three silvicultural treatments. Thinning involved three types of logging systems: mechanized cut-to-length (a combination of single-grip harvester and forwarder), tractor, and skyline. Data for the study came from two sources: activities completed by the Forest Service in preparing sales for bid, and the layout completed by the logging contractor after a contract was awarded. Planning and layout costs showed no consistent relationship to type of silvicultural treatment. Logging contractor layout costs showed a relationship to type of logging system: the mechanized system had the lowest layout cost, followed by the tractor systems, with the skyline systems having the highest costs.

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32. Knapp, W.H., T.C. Turpin and J.H. Beuter. 1984. Vegetation control for Douglas-fir regeneration on the Siuslaw National forest: a decision analysis. Journal-of-Forestry 82(3): 168-173.

Keywords: planting operations

site preparation

chemical preparation

mechanical preparation

prescribed fire

release treatments

chemical release

manual release

growth

yield

economics

Abstract: Records from 324 plantations in Oregon were used to calculate the effect on stocking of various methods of controlling competing vegetation before and after plantation establishment. A decision tree analysis using 6 management regimes on 5 stocking classes indicated that if no site preparation or release (other than broadcast burning to reduce fuels) were practised, the forest would produce 63% of the m.a.i. and 35% of the present net worth (PNW) expected if all means of control (chemical, manual and burning) were available and used. If only manual control methods were used 78% of the max. m.a.i. and 57% of the max. PNW would be expected. When all methods except phenoxy herbicides were available, the expected m.a.i. and PNW were reduced to no less than 90%. The yield reduction varied with aspect, and the type of prelogging vegetation. Declines were least on SW-facing sites that were originally predominantly conifers, and greatest on NE-facing slopes that had supported broadleaves. Limitations of the analysis are discussed.

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33. Knowe, S.A. 1994c. Silvicultural and economic value of vegetation management in the Pacific northwest. In Weed science education: the cost of ignorance: Proceedings of the 47th annual meeting of the Southern Weed Science Society, Dallas, Texas, USA, 17-19 January, 1994. pp. 92-97.

Keywords: planting operations

release treatments

yield

economics

Abstract: Models indicated that the yield and net present value (NPV) of young Pseudotsuga menziesii stands in Oregon varied with site index and planting density. Effects of hardwood competition in 20-year-old plantations were predicted using the Regional Vegetation Management Model (RVMM). A stand table so produced was used for developing ORGANON, which simulated silvicultural treatments and growth for 40-60 years. Output from this was used to evaluate the economic consequences of hardwood competition using ORGECON. It was found that the least impact was observed at low site index with high planting density. Modifications to the models are suggested.

34. Kramer, H. and J.H.G. Smith. 1985. Establishment of Douglas fir stands in British Columbia. Forstarchiv 56(1): 9-13.

Keywords: planting operations

thinning

pruning

growth

yield

economics

wood quality

Abstract: Square spacing trials were established NW of Haney (180 m alt.) at 0.91, 1.83, 2.74, 3.66 and 4.57 m. Growth to age 25 yr, and simulation estimates up to 100 yr are reported. Results indicated that extra costs (incurred by thinning) of stands closer than 4 m spacing are difficult to justify in economic terms, because the market for Douglas fir timber grown in British Columbia is such that only production of large timber is economically viable. The quality of timber from trees grown at wide spacing without thinning is acceptable in relation to Canadian requirements, and could be improved if wide spacing were combined with pruning. It is recommended that close spacings be used only if availability of land is limited or demand for biomass is very strong.

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35. LeDoux, C.B., R.D. Fight and T.L. Ortman. 1986. Stump-to-truck cable logging cost equations for young-growth Douglas-fir. Western-Journal-of-Applied-Forestry 1(1): 19-22.

Keywords: thinning

commercial thinning

economics

Abstract: Data on log sizes were generated to simulate young (age 40-120 yr) Douglas fir site III and IV in the Pacific Northwest. The data were used to develop equations for estimating the delay-free costs of: (1) felling, limbing and cross-cutting; (2) yarding; (3) loading; (4) road changing; and (5) moving in and out and initial rigging up and down. An additional equation estimates the number of logs per 1000 ftsuperscript 3 for logs of d.b.h. 6-24 inch. The equations were developed for 2 small and 1 medium sized yarders and are applicable on slopes of 10-50%. The equations can be used to provide detailed estimates for thinning, partial or shelterwood felling and clearfelling. A BASIC computer program is available from the authors.

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36. Marshall, P.L. 1988. A decision analytic approach to silvicultural investment decisions. Forest-Economics-and-Policy-Analysis-Research-Unit, University-of-British-Columbia Working-Paper 110. 28 p.

Keywords: planting operations

thinning

precommercial thinning

economics

growth

Abstract: A brief review of the literature is presented on methods for achieving optimal silvicultural decisions. The methods are generally computationally cumbersome and difficult to convert to simpler approximations required for most silvicultural decisions. An alternative method is presented and illustrated with two examples. The method involves a simple decision analytic structure. Projections were made for pure coastal Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii for several treatments using three previously p